Recent assemblages from the water column have been
used in biogeographic surveys and as tracers of currents
and water masses (e.g., Boltovskoy and Wright, 1976).
Paleoceanographic studies with Foraminifera are based
on several approaches (see “Paleoceanography” and
“Paleoceanographic Proxies”). Past changes in the proportions of species as compared with present-day specific
makeups (usually aided by more or less complex mathematical manipulations of the data, like the transfer function techniques proposed by Imbrie and Kipp (1971))
allow reconstructing past ecological and oceanographic
settings (temperature, fronts, primary productivity; e.g.,
CLIMAP (1976)). Downcore changes in the relationship
between right-coiling versus left-coiling specimens of
some species (e.g., Neogloboquadrina pachyderma,
whose proportions of right-coiling individuals increase
with increasing temperature) have been used to reconstruct the water temperature at which these foraminifers
lived. Right- versus left-coiling ratios, however, may also
depend on other conditions (e.g., Thiede, 1971; Bolli
et al., 1985). Stable isotopes of oxygen and carbon in foraminiferal tests are also used to determine shifts in the temperature, salinity, oxygen content, and fertility of the
ocean over the past hundreds to millions of years (see
Rohling and Cooke, 2003, for a review) (see “Carbon
Isotopes” and “Oxygen Isotopes”).
Conclusions
Planktonic foraminifers are among the most important
marine microfossils. Their widespread occurrence and
high abundances, their excellent stratigraphic record,
and the comparatively good knowledge of their biology
and ecology make them excellent tools for stratigraphic,
paleoecologic, and biogeographic work. Their limited
diversity and relatively stable taxonomy have been major
advantages for their use as proxies of present and past
oceanographic settings as well as for tackling distributional and evolutionary problems. However, recent
changes in our understanding of the taxonomy of planktonic foraminifers brought about by molecular studies
pose new challenges for the use of these protists in applied
surveys.
Bibliography
Adl, S. M., Simpson, A. G. B., Farmer, M. A., Andersen, R. A.,
Anderson, O. R., Barta, J. R., Bowser, S. S., Brugerolle, G.,
Fensome, R. A., Fredericq, S., James, T. Y., Karpov, S., Kugrens,
P., Krug, J., Lane, C. E., Lewis, L. A., Lodge, J., Lynn, D. H.,
Mann, D. G., Mccourt, R. M., Mendoza, L., Moestrup, Ø.,
Mozley-Standridge, S. E., Nerad, T. A., Shearer, C. A., Smirnov,
A. V., Spiegel, F. W., and Taylor, M. F. J. R., 2005. The new
higher level classification of eukaryotes with emphasis on the
taxonomy of protists. The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology,
52, 399–451.
Arnold, A. J., and Parker, W. C., 2003. Biogeography of planktonic
foraminifera. In Sen Gupta, B. K. (ed.), Modern Foraminifera.
New York: Kluwer, pp. 103–122.
Aurahs, R., Grimm, G. W., Hemleben, V., Hemleben, C., and
Kučera, M., 2009. Geographic distribution of cryptic genetic
types in the planktonic foraminifer Globigerinoides ruber.
Molecular Ecology, 18, 1692–1706.
Bé, A. W. H., 1968. Shell porosity of recent planktonic foraminifera
as a climatic index. Science, 161, 881–884.
Bé, A. W. H., 1977. An ecological, zoogeographic and taxonomic
review of recent planktonic foraminifera. In Ramsay,
A. T. S. (ed.), Oceanic Micropaleontology. London: Academic,
pp. 1–101.
Bé, A. W. H., Hemleben, C., Anderson, O. R., Spindler, M.,
Hacunda, J., and Tuntivate-Choy, S., 1977. Laboratory and field
observations of living planktonic foraminifera. Micropaleontology, 23, 155–179.
Bijma, J., Faber, W. W., Jr., and Hemleben, C., 1990. Temperature
and salinity limits for growth and survival of some planktonic
foraminifers in laboratory cultures. Journal of Foraminiferal
Research, 20, 95–116.
Bolli, H. M., Saunders, J. B., and Perch-Nielsen, K. (eds.), 1985.
Plankton Stratigraphy. London: Cambridge University Press,
pp. 1–1032.
Boltovskoy, D., 1994. The sedimentary record of pelagic biogeography. Progress in Oceanography, 34, 135–160.
Boltovskoy, E., and Wright, R., 1976. Recent Foraminifera. The
Hague: W. Junk, pp. 1–515.
BouDagher-Fadel, M. K., 2012. Biostratigraphy and geological significance of planktonic foraminifera. In Wignall, P. B. (ed.),
Developments in Paleontology and Stratigraphy. New York:
Elsevier, pp. 1–301.
Brummer, G. J. A., Hemleben, C., and Spindler, M., 1987. Ontogeny of extant spinose planktonic foraminifera (Globigerinidae),
a concept exemplified by Globigerinoides sacculifer (Brady)
and G. ruber (d’Orbigny). Marine Micropaleontology, 12,
357–381.
CLIMAP Project Members, 1976. The surface of the ice age earth.
Science, 191, 1131–1137.
Darling, K. F., and Wade, C. M., 2008. The genetic diversity of
planktic foraminifera and the global distribution of ribosomal
RNA genotypes. Marine Micropaleontology, 67, 216–238.
de Vargas, C., Saez, A. G., Medlin, L., and Thierstein, H. R., 2004.
Super-species in the calcareous plankton. In Thierstein, H. R.,
and Young, J. R. (eds.), Coccolithophores: From Molecular Processes to Global Impact. Berlin: Springer, pp. 251–298.
Goldstein, S. T., 2003. Foraminifera: a biological overview. In Sen
Gupta, B. K. (ed.), Modern Foraminifera. New York: Kluwer,
pp. 37–55.
Hemleben, C., Spindler, M., and Anderson, O. R., 1989. Modern
Planktonic Foraminifera. New York: Springer, pp. 1–363.
Hottinger, L., 2006. Illustrated glossary of terms used in foraminiferal research. http://paleopolis.rediris.es/cg/CG2006_M02/
index.html
Imbrie, J., and Kipp, N. G., 1971. A new micropaleontological
method for quantitative paleoclimatology: application to a late
Pleistocene Caribbean core. In Turekian, K. K. (ed.), The Late
Cenozoic Glacial Ages. New Haven: Yale University Press,
pp. 71–181.
Kemle-Von Mücke, S., and Hemleben, C., 1999. Foraminifera. In
Boltovskoy, D. (ed.), South Atlantic Zooplankton. Leiden:
Backhuys, pp. 43–73.
Kennett, J. P., 1982. Marine Geology. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice
Hall, pp. 1–813.
Kuroyanagi, A., and Kawahata, H., 2004. Vertical distribution of
living planktonic foraminifera in the seas around Japan. Marine
Micropaleontology, 53, 173–196.
Lee, J. J., Pawlowski, J., Debenay, J.-P., Whittaker, J., Banner, F.,
Gooday, A. J., Tendal, O., Haynes, J., and Faber, W. W., 2000.
Class foraminifera. In Lee, J. J. (ed.), The Illustrated Guide to
the Protozoa, 2nd edn. Lawrence: Society of Protozoologists,
pp. 872–951.
260
FORAMINIFERS (PLANKTONIC)
used in biogeographic surveys and as tracers of currents
and water masses (e.g., Boltovskoy and Wright, 1976).
Paleoceanographic studies with Foraminifera are based
on several approaches (see “Paleoceanography” and
“Paleoceanographic Proxies”). Past changes in the proportions of species as compared with present-day specific
makeups (usually aided by more or less complex mathematical manipulations of the data, like the transfer function techniques proposed by Imbrie and Kipp (1971))
allow reconstructing past ecological and oceanographic
settings (temperature, fronts, primary productivity; e.g.,
CLIMAP (1976)). Downcore changes in the relationship
between right-coiling versus left-coiling specimens of
some species (e.g., Neogloboquadrina pachyderma,
whose proportions of right-coiling individuals increase
with increasing temperature) have been used to reconstruct the water temperature at which these foraminifers
lived. Right- versus left-coiling ratios, however, may also
depend on other conditions (e.g., Thiede, 1971; Bolli
et al., 1985). Stable isotopes of oxygen and carbon in foraminiferal tests are also used to determine shifts in the temperature, salinity, oxygen content, and fertility of the
ocean over the past hundreds to millions of years (see
Rohling and Cooke, 2003, for a review) (see “Carbon
Isotopes” and “Oxygen Isotopes”).
Conclusions
Planktonic foraminifers are among the most important
marine microfossils. Their widespread occurrence and
high abundances, their excellent stratigraphic record,
and the comparatively good knowledge of their biology
and ecology make them excellent tools for stratigraphic,
paleoecologic, and biogeographic work. Their limited
diversity and relatively stable taxonomy have been major
advantages for their use as proxies of present and past
oceanographic settings as well as for tackling distributional and evolutionary problems. However, recent
changes in our understanding of the taxonomy of planktonic foraminifers brought about by molecular studies
pose new challenges for the use of these protists in applied
surveys.
Bibliography
Adl, S. M., Simpson, A. G. B., Farmer, M. A., Andersen, R. A.,
Anderson, O. R., Barta, J. R., Bowser, S. S., Brugerolle, G.,
Fensome, R. A., Fredericq, S., James, T. Y., Karpov, S., Kugrens,
P., Krug, J., Lane, C. E., Lewis, L. A., Lodge, J., Lynn, D. H.,
Mann, D. G., Mccourt, R. M., Mendoza, L., Moestrup, Ø.,
Mozley-Standridge, S. E., Nerad, T. A., Shearer, C. A., Smirnov,
A. V., Spiegel, F. W., and Taylor, M. F. J. R., 2005. The new
higher level classification of eukaryotes with emphasis on the
taxonomy of protists. The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology,
52, 399–451.
Arnold, A. J., and Parker, W. C., 2003. Biogeography of planktonic
foraminifera. In Sen Gupta, B. K. (ed.), Modern Foraminifera.
New York: Kluwer, pp. 103–122.
Aurahs, R., Grimm, G. W., Hemleben, V., Hemleben, C., and
Kučera, M., 2009. Geographic distribution of cryptic genetic
types in the planktonic foraminifer Globigerinoides ruber.
Molecular Ecology, 18, 1692–1706.
Bé, A. W. H., 1968. Shell porosity of recent planktonic foraminifera
as a climatic index. Science, 161, 881–884.
Bé, A. W. H., 1977. An ecological, zoogeographic and taxonomic
review of recent planktonic foraminifera. In Ramsay,
A. T. S. (ed.), Oceanic Micropaleontology. London: Academic,
pp. 1–101.
Bé, A. W. H., Hemleben, C., Anderson, O. R., Spindler, M.,
Hacunda, J., and Tuntivate-Choy, S., 1977. Laboratory and field
observations of living planktonic foraminifera. Micropaleontology, 23, 155–179.
Bijma, J., Faber, W. W., Jr., and Hemleben, C., 1990. Temperature
and salinity limits for growth and survival of some planktonic
foraminifers in laboratory cultures. Journal of Foraminiferal
Research, 20, 95–116.
Bolli, H. M., Saunders, J. B., and Perch-Nielsen, K. (eds.), 1985.
Plankton Stratigraphy. London: Cambridge University Press,
pp. 1–1032.
Boltovskoy, D., 1994. The sedimentary record of pelagic biogeography. Progress in Oceanography, 34, 135–160.
Boltovskoy, E., and Wright, R., 1976. Recent Foraminifera. The
Hague: W. Junk, pp. 1–515.
BouDagher-Fadel, M. K., 2012. Biostratigraphy and geological significance of planktonic foraminifera. In Wignall, P. B. (ed.),
Developments in Paleontology and Stratigraphy. New York:
Elsevier, pp. 1–301.
Brummer, G. J. A., Hemleben, C., and Spindler, M., 1987. Ontogeny of extant spinose planktonic foraminifera (Globigerinidae),
a concept exemplified by Globigerinoides sacculifer (Brady)
and G. ruber (d’Orbigny). Marine Micropaleontology, 12,
357–381.
CLIMAP Project Members, 1976. The surface of the ice age earth.
Science, 191, 1131–1137.
Darling, K. F., and Wade, C. M., 2008. The genetic diversity of
planktic foraminifera and the global distribution of ribosomal
RNA genotypes. Marine Micropaleontology, 67, 216–238.
de Vargas, C., Saez, A. G., Medlin, L., and Thierstein, H. R., 2004.
Super-species in the calcareous plankton. In Thierstein, H. R.,
and Young, J. R. (eds.), Coccolithophores: From Molecular Processes to Global Impact. Berlin: Springer, pp. 251–298.
Goldstein, S. T., 2003. Foraminifera: a biological overview. In Sen
Gupta, B. K. (ed.), Modern Foraminifera. New York: Kluwer,
pp. 37–55.
Hemleben, C., Spindler, M., and Anderson, O. R., 1989. Modern
Planktonic Foraminifera. New York: Springer, pp. 1–363.
Hottinger, L., 2006. Illustrated glossary of terms used in foraminiferal research. http://paleopolis.rediris.es/cg/CG2006_M02/
index.html
Imbrie, J., and Kipp, N. G., 1971. A new micropaleontological
method for quantitative paleoclimatology: application to a late
Pleistocene Caribbean core. In Turekian, K. K. (ed.), The Late
Cenozoic Glacial Ages. New Haven: Yale University Press,
pp. 71–181.
Kemle-Von Mücke, S., and Hemleben, C., 1999. Foraminifera. In
Boltovskoy, D. (ed.), South Atlantic Zooplankton. Leiden:
Backhuys, pp. 43–73.
Kennett, J. P., 1982. Marine Geology. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice
Hall, pp. 1–813.
Kuroyanagi, A., and Kawahata, H., 2004. Vertical distribution of
living planktonic foraminifera in the seas around Japan. Marine
Micropaleontology, 53, 173–196.
Lee, J. J., Pawlowski, J., Debenay, J.-P., Whittaker, J., Banner, F.,
Gooday, A. J., Tendal, O., Haynes, J., and Faber, W. W., 2000.
Class foraminifera. In Lee, J. J. (ed.), The Illustrated Guide to
the Protozoa, 2nd edn. Lawrence: Society of Protozoologists,
pp. 872–951.
260
FORAMINIFERS (PLANKTONIC)