Summary
Although coasts account for only 10 % of Earth’s land surface, they serve as home to two-thirds of the world’s
human population. As population density and economic
activity in the coastal zone increases, pressures on coastal
ecosystems increase. Among the most important pressures
are habitat conversion, land cover change, pollutant loads,
and introduction of invasive species. It is thus relevant and
important to have clear concepts of definitions of coast
that can be applied in a range of disciplines.
Bibliography
Agenda 21 Staff, 1992. United Nations Sustainable Development.
United Nations Conference on Environment & Development,
Rio de Janeirol, 3–14 June 1992, v.p.
Anthony, E. J., Gardel, A., Gratiot, N., Proisy, C., Allison, M. A.,
Dolique, F., and Fromard, F., 2010. The Amazon-influenced
muddy coast of South America: a review of mud-bank-shoreline
interactions. Earth-Science Reviews, 103(2010), 99–121.
Beckwith, C. (ed.), 1989. 1989 American Alpine Journal. Golden,
CO: The American Alpine Club.
Bird, E. C. F., 1976. Coasts. Canberra, BC: Australian National
University Press. 282 p.
Bird, E. C. F., 1985. Coastline Changes: A Global Review. Chichester: Wiley. 219.
Bird, E. C. F., and Schwartz, M. L. (eds.), 1985. The World’s Coastline. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. 1071 p.
CERC (Coastal Engineering Research Center) Staff, 1966. Shore
Protection, Planning and Design. Washington, DC: Government
Printing Office. 580 p.
Chapman, V. J., 1974. Salt Marshes and Salt Deserts of the World.
Lehre, Germany: Cramer. 494 p.
Christian, R. R., and Mazzilli, S., 2007. Defining the coast and sentimental ecosystems for coastal observations of global change.
Hydrobiologia, 577, 55–70.
Clark, J. R., 1996. Coastal Zone Management Handbook. Boca
Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers. 928 p.
Cotton, C. A., 1963. Levels of planation of marine benches.
Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, N.F.7, 97–111.
Cullinan, C., 2006. Integrated Coastal Management Law:
Establishing and Strengthening National Legal Frameworks
for Integrated Coastal Management. Rome: FAO. 262 p.
Davies, J. L., 1964. A morphogenic approach to world shorelines.
Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie (Mortensen Sonderheft), 8,
127–142.
Davies, J. L., 1980. Geographical Variation in Coastal Development. London: Longman. 204 p.
Davis, W. M., 1898. Physical Geography (assisted by W.H.
Snyder). Boston: Ginn and Co., 428 p.
Emery, K. O., and Kuhn, G. G., 1980. Erosion of rock coasts at La
Jolla, California. Marine Geology, 37, 197–208.
Fairbridge, R. W., 1989. Crescendo events in sea-level changes.
Journal of Coastal Research, 5(1), i–vi.
Fairbridge, R. W., 1992. Holocene marine coastal evolution of the
United States. In Fletcher, C. H., III, and Wehmiller, J. F.
(eds.), Quaternary Coasts of the United States: Marine and
Lacustrine Systems. Tulsa: SEPM (Society for Sedimentary
Geology). SEPM Special Publication No. 4, pp. 9–20.
Finkl, C. W., 2004. Coastal classification: systematic approaches to
consider in the development of a comprehensive scheme. Journal of Coastal Research, 20(1), 166–213.
Flemming, B. W., 2002. Geographic distribution of muddy coasts. In
Healy, T., and Wang, Y. (eds.), Muddy Coasts of the World: Processes, Deposits and Function. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 99–201.
Galloway, R. W., and Bahr, M. E., 1979. What is the length of the
Australian coast? Australian Geographer, 14, 244–247.
Guilcher, A., 1958. Coastal and Submarine Morphology. London:
Methuen. 274 p.
Guilcher, A., 1988. Coral Reef Geomorphology. New York: Wiley.
228 p.
Hopley, D., 1988. The Geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef.
New York: Wiley. 453 p.
Jackson, J. A. (ed.), 1997. Glossary of Geology. Alexandria, VI:
American Geological Institute. 769 p.
Johnson, D. W., 1919. Shore Processes and Shoreline Development.
New York: Wiley. 584 p.
Kennedy, D. M., and Woodroffe, C. D., 2002. Fringing reef growth
and morphology: a review. Earth-Science Reviews, 57,
255–277.
King, C. A. M., 1963. Some problems concerning marine planation
and the formation of erosion surfaces. Transactions Papers Institute British Geographers, 33, 29–43.
King, C. A. M., 1966. Beaches and Coasts. London: Arnold. 403 p.
Klemas, V., 2011. Remote sensing technologies for studying coastal
ecosystems: an overview. Journal of Coastal Research, 27(1),
2–17.
Leatherman, S. P., 1997. Beach ratings: a methodological approach.
Journal of Coastal Research, 13, 253–258.
Leet, L. D., and Judson, S., 1958. Physical Geology. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 502 p.
McGlashan, D. J., Duck, R. W., and Reid, C. T., 2008. Unstable
boundaries on a cliffed coast: geomorphology and British Laws.
Journal of Coastal Research, 24(1A), 181–188.
McGranahan, G., Balk, D., and Anderson, B., 2007. The rising tide:
assessing the risks of climate change and human settlements in
low elevation coastal zones. Environment and Urbanization,
19(1), 17–37.
MEA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment), 2005. Ecosystems and
Human Well-Being: Biodiversity Synthesis. Washington, DC:
World Resources Institute. 86 p.
Merriam-Webster, 1994. Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary of English
Usage. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. 989 p.
Nicholls, R. J., and Small, C., 2002. Improved estimates of coastal
population and exposure to hazards. EOS, Transactions American Geophysical Union, 83, 301.
Nunn, P. D., 1994. Oceanic Islands. Oxford: Blackwell. 413 p.
Oertel, G. F., 2005. Coasts, coastlines, shores, and shorelines. In
Schwartz, M. L. (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Coastal Science.
Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer, pp. 323–327.
Orme, A. R., 1962. Abandoned and composite sea cliffs in Britain
and Ireland. Irish Geography, 4, 279–291.
Owens, E. H., 1994. Canadian Coastal Environments, Shoreline
Processes, and Oil Spill Cleanup. Ottawa, ON: Environment
Canada, Environmental Emergency Branch. Report EPS 3/SP/
5, 328 p.
Pilkey, O. H., 2003. A Celebration of the World’s Barrier Islands.
New York: Columbia University. 309 p.
Pilkey, O. H., Neal, W. J., Kelley, J. T., and Cooper, A. G., 2011. The
World’s Beaches. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
283 p.
Quadros, N. D., and Collier, P. A., 2008. A new approach to delineating the littoral zone for an Australian marine cadastre. Journal
of Coastal Research, 24(4), 780–789.
Seddon, R. J., and von Dadelszen, E. J., 1898. The New Zealand
Official Year-Book 1989. Wellington, New Zealand: John
Mackey, Government Printer. 684 p.
Shaw, J. B., Wolinsky, M. A., Paola, C., and Voller, V. R., 2008. An
image-based method for shoreline mapping on complex coasts.
Geophysical Research Letters, 35, 12.
Shepard, F. P., 1973. Submarine Geology. New York: Harper and
Row. 519 p.
112
COASTS
Although coasts account for only 10 % of Earth’s land surface, they serve as home to two-thirds of the world’s
human population. As population density and economic
activity in the coastal zone increases, pressures on coastal
ecosystems increase. Among the most important pressures
are habitat conversion, land cover change, pollutant loads,
and introduction of invasive species. It is thus relevant and
important to have clear concepts of definitions of coast
that can be applied in a range of disciplines.
Bibliography
Agenda 21 Staff, 1992. United Nations Sustainable Development.
United Nations Conference on Environment & Development,
Rio de Janeirol, 3–14 June 1992, v.p.
Anthony, E. J., Gardel, A., Gratiot, N., Proisy, C., Allison, M. A.,
Dolique, F., and Fromard, F., 2010. The Amazon-influenced
muddy coast of South America: a review of mud-bank-shoreline
interactions. Earth-Science Reviews, 103(2010), 99–121.
Beckwith, C. (ed.), 1989. 1989 American Alpine Journal. Golden,
CO: The American Alpine Club.
Bird, E. C. F., 1976. Coasts. Canberra, BC: Australian National
University Press. 282 p.
Bird, E. C. F., 1985. Coastline Changes: A Global Review. Chichester: Wiley. 219.
Bird, E. C. F., and Schwartz, M. L. (eds.), 1985. The World’s Coastline. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. 1071 p.
CERC (Coastal Engineering Research Center) Staff, 1966. Shore
Protection, Planning and Design. Washington, DC: Government
Printing Office. 580 p.
Chapman, V. J., 1974. Salt Marshes and Salt Deserts of the World.
Lehre, Germany: Cramer. 494 p.
Christian, R. R., and Mazzilli, S., 2007. Defining the coast and sentimental ecosystems for coastal observations of global change.
Hydrobiologia, 577, 55–70.
Clark, J. R., 1996. Coastal Zone Management Handbook. Boca
Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers. 928 p.
Cotton, C. A., 1963. Levels of planation of marine benches.
Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, N.F.7, 97–111.
Cullinan, C., 2006. Integrated Coastal Management Law:
Establishing and Strengthening National Legal Frameworks
for Integrated Coastal Management. Rome: FAO. 262 p.
Davies, J. L., 1964. A morphogenic approach to world shorelines.
Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie (Mortensen Sonderheft), 8,
127–142.
Davies, J. L., 1980. Geographical Variation in Coastal Development. London: Longman. 204 p.
Davis, W. M., 1898. Physical Geography (assisted by W.H.
Snyder). Boston: Ginn and Co., 428 p.
Emery, K. O., and Kuhn, G. G., 1980. Erosion of rock coasts at La
Jolla, California. Marine Geology, 37, 197–208.
Fairbridge, R. W., 1989. Crescendo events in sea-level changes.
Journal of Coastal Research, 5(1), i–vi.
Fairbridge, R. W., 1992. Holocene marine coastal evolution of the
United States. In Fletcher, C. H., III, and Wehmiller, J. F.
(eds.), Quaternary Coasts of the United States: Marine and
Lacustrine Systems. Tulsa: SEPM (Society for Sedimentary
Geology). SEPM Special Publication No. 4, pp. 9–20.
Finkl, C. W., 2004. Coastal classification: systematic approaches to
consider in the development of a comprehensive scheme. Journal of Coastal Research, 20(1), 166–213.
Flemming, B. W., 2002. Geographic distribution of muddy coasts. In
Healy, T., and Wang, Y. (eds.), Muddy Coasts of the World: Processes, Deposits and Function. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 99–201.
Galloway, R. W., and Bahr, M. E., 1979. What is the length of the
Australian coast? Australian Geographer, 14, 244–247.
Guilcher, A., 1958. Coastal and Submarine Morphology. London:
Methuen. 274 p.
Guilcher, A., 1988. Coral Reef Geomorphology. New York: Wiley.
228 p.
Hopley, D., 1988. The Geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef.
New York: Wiley. 453 p.
Jackson, J. A. (ed.), 1997. Glossary of Geology. Alexandria, VI:
American Geological Institute. 769 p.
Johnson, D. W., 1919. Shore Processes and Shoreline Development.
New York: Wiley. 584 p.
Kennedy, D. M., and Woodroffe, C. D., 2002. Fringing reef growth
and morphology: a review. Earth-Science Reviews, 57,
255–277.
King, C. A. M., 1963. Some problems concerning marine planation
and the formation of erosion surfaces. Transactions Papers Institute British Geographers, 33, 29–43.
King, C. A. M., 1966. Beaches and Coasts. London: Arnold. 403 p.
Klemas, V., 2011. Remote sensing technologies for studying coastal
ecosystems: an overview. Journal of Coastal Research, 27(1),
2–17.
Leatherman, S. P., 1997. Beach ratings: a methodological approach.
Journal of Coastal Research, 13, 253–258.
Leet, L. D., and Judson, S., 1958. Physical Geology. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 502 p.
McGlashan, D. J., Duck, R. W., and Reid, C. T., 2008. Unstable
boundaries on a cliffed coast: geomorphology and British Laws.
Journal of Coastal Research, 24(1A), 181–188.
McGranahan, G., Balk, D., and Anderson, B., 2007. The rising tide:
assessing the risks of climate change and human settlements in
low elevation coastal zones. Environment and Urbanization,
19(1), 17–37.
MEA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment), 2005. Ecosystems and
Human Well-Being: Biodiversity Synthesis. Washington, DC:
World Resources Institute. 86 p.
Merriam-Webster, 1994. Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary of English
Usage. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. 989 p.
Nicholls, R. J., and Small, C., 2002. Improved estimates of coastal
population and exposure to hazards. EOS, Transactions American Geophysical Union, 83, 301.
Nunn, P. D., 1994. Oceanic Islands. Oxford: Blackwell. 413 p.
Oertel, G. F., 2005. Coasts, coastlines, shores, and shorelines. In
Schwartz, M. L. (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Coastal Science.
Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer, pp. 323–327.
Orme, A. R., 1962. Abandoned and composite sea cliffs in Britain
and Ireland. Irish Geography, 4, 279–291.
Owens, E. H., 1994. Canadian Coastal Environments, Shoreline
Processes, and Oil Spill Cleanup. Ottawa, ON: Environment
Canada, Environmental Emergency Branch. Report EPS 3/SP/
5, 328 p.
Pilkey, O. H., 2003. A Celebration of the World’s Barrier Islands.
New York: Columbia University. 309 p.
Pilkey, O. H., Neal, W. J., Kelley, J. T., and Cooper, A. G., 2011. The
World’s Beaches. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
283 p.
Quadros, N. D., and Collier, P. A., 2008. A new approach to delineating the littoral zone for an Australian marine cadastre. Journal
of Coastal Research, 24(4), 780–789.
Seddon, R. J., and von Dadelszen, E. J., 1898. The New Zealand
Official Year-Book 1989. Wellington, New Zealand: John
Mackey, Government Printer. 684 p.
Shaw, J. B., Wolinsky, M. A., Paola, C., and Voller, V. R., 2008. An
image-based method for shoreline mapping on complex coasts.
Geophysical Research Letters, 35, 12.
Shepard, F. P., 1973. Submarine Geology. New York: Harper and
Row. 519 p.
112
COASTS