1 Towards Mitigation of Environmental Risks
3
November 6, 1991 about designating special zones in the sea and identifying particularly sensitive sea areas (PSSAs). This was an essential modification of the principle of the freedom of navigation legitimized and protected by the IMO towards mitigating risks to the marine environment. This resolution provided a new paradigm
to coastal states not only to protect specific areas within their territorial waters but
also to extend such protection to further offshore (Lefebvre-Chalain 2007). It has
marked the emergence of a new cooperation between maritime activities and the
protection of fragile marine ecosystems (Lefebvre-Chalain 2007). In a later resolution 2 982(24), the IMO defines PSSAs as areas with “ecological, socio-economic, or
scientific” importance and, consequently, recognizes these areas as needing special
protection (Kachel 2008). With the increase in the understanding of the functioning of seas and oceans, the importance of different domains such as ecologically
sensitive locations (Burgherr 2007) or large marine ecosystems (Sherman and Duda
1999) has been highlighted. We denote all these locations as vulnerable areas.
More generally, the danger from potential pollution from the ship traffic is transboundary as the propagation of pollution in the marine environment of course ignores any legal division of the sea between different authorities. It is of great concern
for both semi-sheltered seas and along the oceanic coasts (Eide et al. 2007). Even
the most remote parts of the world cannot be considered as safe in this respect. Ship
traffic in the arctic regions—which contain large food resources but also are particularly sensitive to environmental pollution—is increasing. Traces of pollution easily
reach also Antarctic waters. Thus, reliable design and improved safety are critical
to the acceptance of ship operations, especially in particularly vulnerable sea areas,
and have a strong environmental benefit for all.
The largest single oil spills released to the marine environment stem in fact from
offshore oil platforms. Spills from underwater pipelines also form a notable part of
the oil releases (Burgherr 2007). Underwater mining and dumping of material into
the sea may also lead to the deterioration of the local ecosystem. The sea bottom
at some places resembles a scrapyard and may contain dangerous concentrations of
chemicals used in the recent past (Verta et al. 2007). In many aspects the buffering
capacities of the World Ocean may be exhausted. Keeping it sustainable and reasonably managing dangers associated with its exploitation is, therefore, one of the
major challenges of this century.
1.2 The Notion of Risk, Probability and Consequences
Contemporary scientific and engineering literature use the term ‘risk’ in many different meanings. To avoid ambiguity and possible confusion of risk with uncertainty, in what follows we shall rely on the classical concept of risk as a quantitative measure of a potential adverse event. The notion of risk R in this framework
(Risk Management Standard 2002) is expressed as the product of the probability P a
2 http://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/mar/ebsa-sio-01/other/ebsa-sio-01-imo-en.pdf.
3
November 6, 1991 about designating special zones in the sea and identifying particularly sensitive sea areas (PSSAs). This was an essential modification of the principle of the freedom of navigation legitimized and protected by the IMO towards mitigating risks to the marine environment. This resolution provided a new paradigm
to coastal states not only to protect specific areas within their territorial waters but
also to extend such protection to further offshore (Lefebvre-Chalain 2007). It has
marked the emergence of a new cooperation between maritime activities and the
protection of fragile marine ecosystems (Lefebvre-Chalain 2007). In a later resolution 2 982(24), the IMO defines PSSAs as areas with “ecological, socio-economic, or
scientific” importance and, consequently, recognizes these areas as needing special
protection (Kachel 2008). With the increase in the understanding of the functioning of seas and oceans, the importance of different domains such as ecologically
sensitive locations (Burgherr 2007) or large marine ecosystems (Sherman and Duda
1999) has been highlighted. We denote all these locations as vulnerable areas.
More generally, the danger from potential pollution from the ship traffic is transboundary as the propagation of pollution in the marine environment of course ignores any legal division of the sea between different authorities. It is of great concern
for both semi-sheltered seas and along the oceanic coasts (Eide et al. 2007). Even
the most remote parts of the world cannot be considered as safe in this respect. Ship
traffic in the arctic regions—which contain large food resources but also are particularly sensitive to environmental pollution—is increasing. Traces of pollution easily
reach also Antarctic waters. Thus, reliable design and improved safety are critical
to the acceptance of ship operations, especially in particularly vulnerable sea areas,
and have a strong environmental benefit for all.
The largest single oil spills released to the marine environment stem in fact from
offshore oil platforms. Spills from underwater pipelines also form a notable part of
the oil releases (Burgherr 2007). Underwater mining and dumping of material into
the sea may also lead to the deterioration of the local ecosystem. The sea bottom
at some places resembles a scrapyard and may contain dangerous concentrations of
chemicals used in the recent past (Verta et al. 2007). In many aspects the buffering
capacities of the World Ocean may be exhausted. Keeping it sustainable and reasonably managing dangers associated with its exploitation is, therefore, one of the
major challenges of this century.
1.2 The Notion of Risk, Probability and Consequences
Contemporary scientific and engineering literature use the term ‘risk’ in many different meanings. To avoid ambiguity and possible confusion of risk with uncertainty, in what follows we shall rely on the classical concept of risk as a quantitative measure of a potential adverse event. The notion of risk R in this framework
(Risk Management Standard 2002) is expressed as the product of the probability P a
2 http://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/mar/ebsa-sio-01/other/ebsa-sio-01-imo-en.pdf.