2
T. Soomere
1.1 Introduction
It has almost become a cliché that the marine environment is suffering from ever
increasing anthropogenic pressure. Regrettably, it is a fact that this pressure is much
more extensive and multi-faceted than we imagined. Historically, anthropogenic
pressure had been concentrated on the sea surface and in coastal regions, and mostly
limited to shipping and fishing industry. With the development of agriculture and
industry, it has rapidly spread over semi-sheltered and shelf seas, and today it has
reached the most remote parts of the World Ocean, even down to the bottom sediments in its deepest chasms. While much of the impact is absorbed by the huge
water volume, the World Ocean is believed to severely react to the human activity,
for instance, through worldwide sea level rise and acidification of its water masses.
The sea surface plays a particular role in both the functioning of the sea and the
use of the marine environment. It is almost impossible to imagine contemporary
society without the services provided by this interface between air and water. As
one of many benefits, the sea surface offers the possibility for major transportation.
Shipping has been for a long time and evidently will also remain in the future an efficient and environmentally friendly mode of transportation. Today it is responsible
for over 80 % of the world trade by volume (Boissonnas et al. 2002). The everincreasing density of long-distance ship traffic, the modal shift of local rail and road
transport within the European Union to a waterborne one (Banister 2007), and the
growing size of ocean-going ships all suggest a further increase in ship transport.
This perspective contains also several perils. The largest direct danger to the
marine environment and ecosystems is the rapid growth of oil transportation in the
vicinity of valuable or vulnerable sea area. The concept of certain marine areas
being more valuable than others has obviously been used for millennia in the context
of fishing industry. Traditional fishing cultures around the world have engaged in
closure-based practices that have functioned to protect marine resources. Perhaps
the best-known example of this is the tabu or kapu concept established by Pacific
island cultures many centuries ago (Bowden-Kerby 2001).
The contemporary concept of (possibly other) marine areas being more vulnerable or important, and the need for specific measures for their protection, probably originates from the mid-1800s. The pioneers were people from different parts
of the New World. The oldest marine protected area, Royal National Park, New
South Wales, Australia, was designated in 1879 (Anonymous 2002). Soon afterwards North America (Breton National Wildlife Refuge, Louisiana, USA, 1904)
and Asia (Matang Forest Reserve, State of Perak, Malaysia, 1906) followed. In this
respect, Europe has the last place, with the Underwater Reserve of Monaco (1976)
(Anonymous 2002).
The listed examples and the majority of marine protected areas are actually
coastal or nearshore waters. The importance of protection of certain offshore areas is
less obvious. It has been legally recognized only two decades ago when the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Assembly Resolution 1 720(17) on
1 http://www.imo.org/blast/blastDataHelper.asp?data_id=22581&filename=A720(17).pdf.
T. Soomere
1.1 Introduction
It has almost become a cliché that the marine environment is suffering from ever
increasing anthropogenic pressure. Regrettably, it is a fact that this pressure is much
more extensive and multi-faceted than we imagined. Historically, anthropogenic
pressure had been concentrated on the sea surface and in coastal regions, and mostly
limited to shipping and fishing industry. With the development of agriculture and
industry, it has rapidly spread over semi-sheltered and shelf seas, and today it has
reached the most remote parts of the World Ocean, even down to the bottom sediments in its deepest chasms. While much of the impact is absorbed by the huge
water volume, the World Ocean is believed to severely react to the human activity,
for instance, through worldwide sea level rise and acidification of its water masses.
The sea surface plays a particular role in both the functioning of the sea and the
use of the marine environment. It is almost impossible to imagine contemporary
society without the services provided by this interface between air and water. As
one of many benefits, the sea surface offers the possibility for major transportation.
Shipping has been for a long time and evidently will also remain in the future an efficient and environmentally friendly mode of transportation. Today it is responsible
for over 80 % of the world trade by volume (Boissonnas et al. 2002). The everincreasing density of long-distance ship traffic, the modal shift of local rail and road
transport within the European Union to a waterborne one (Banister 2007), and the
growing size of ocean-going ships all suggest a further increase in ship transport.
This perspective contains also several perils. The largest direct danger to the
marine environment and ecosystems is the rapid growth of oil transportation in the
vicinity of valuable or vulnerable sea area. The concept of certain marine areas
being more valuable than others has obviously been used for millennia in the context
of fishing industry. Traditional fishing cultures around the world have engaged in
closure-based practices that have functioned to protect marine resources. Perhaps
the best-known example of this is the tabu or kapu concept established by Pacific
island cultures many centuries ago (Bowden-Kerby 2001).
The contemporary concept of (possibly other) marine areas being more vulnerable or important, and the need for specific measures for their protection, probably originates from the mid-1800s. The pioneers were people from different parts
of the New World. The oldest marine protected area, Royal National Park, New
South Wales, Australia, was designated in 1879 (Anonymous 2002). Soon afterwards North America (Breton National Wildlife Refuge, Louisiana, USA, 1904)
and Asia (Matang Forest Reserve, State of Perak, Malaysia, 1906) followed. In this
respect, Europe has the last place, with the Underwater Reserve of Monaco (1976)
(Anonymous 2002).
The listed examples and the majority of marine protected areas are actually
coastal or nearshore waters. The importance of protection of certain offshore areas is
less obvious. It has been legally recognized only two decades ago when the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the Assembly Resolution 1 720(17) on
1 http://www.imo.org/blast/blastDataHelper.asp?data_id=22581&filename=A720(17).pdf.