The activities involved in coastal dune restoration include a wide array of
actions, such as use of machinery, planting, fencing, elimination of exotics,
remobilization of stabilized dunes, geotubes, sod cutting, and even tree felling
(Table 18.3). The goals of these activities are not as diverse, and mostly include
protection of endangered or native species; restoring mobility and native flora;
recreation, protection, and aesthetic. Indeed, the costs involved in these actions are
equally variable. In the data we gathered, we noticed that removal of unwanted
vegetation by means of sod cutting, tree felling, and elimination of exotics was, no
doubt, amongst the most expensive coastal dune restoration actions. Likewise,
creating an artificial dune and planting it with native vegetation was a very
expensive activity in Denmark (US$77,393/ha), but it seems to have been successful (Table 18.3) (Vestergaard, Chap. 4, this volume), with high annual
maintenance costs (US$2,229/ha; Table 18.3). Coastal dune re-mobilization is also
a difficult and expensive task and needs to be repeated every few years (Arens
et al., Chap. 7, this volume).
Although the information is still not readily available, and restoration actions
are scattered in different countries and take place with different intensities, millions of dollars are already being spent on this activity. For instance, in The
Netherlands, there have been more than 100 restoration projects over the last
20 years that, overall, have cost from 10 to 20 million Euros (Grootjans, personal
communication). In Spain, more than one million Euros were spent on recovering
the native maritime juniper woodlands in Andalusia in a project that lasted 5 years
(Muñoz-Reinoso et al., Chap. 9, this volume).
It is also interesting to notice that funding for restoration actions almost always
comes from local and federal governments, and usually restoration is performed in
national parks, nature reserves, and on public beaches (Table 18.3). An exception
to this were the activities that were carried out in Galveston, Texas (USA), where
private owners and stakeholders paid for beach and coastal dune restoration as an
investment in the protection of their properties against the recurring impacts of
hurricanes. In this case, the owners felt that the original dune and swale structure
had protected their homes from incurring much greater expense during Hurricane
Ike. Moreover, residents said that the reconstructed dunes also enhanced the
aesthetic value of their property and buffered them from public intrusion onto their
property (Feagin, Chap. 6, this volume; Table 18.3).
Besides the government and stakeholders being interested in paying for coastal
dune restoration programs, the public, in general, seems to be gradually becoming
more and more interested in these actions (Table 18.3). For instance, volunteer
work for either planting dune vegetation (Grootjans et al., Chap. 15, this volume)
or removing invasive species (Pickart, Chap. 10, this volume) has played a key
role in achieving the goals of restoration in the Netherlands and the USA
respectively. Additionally, in Israel, Lehrer et al. (Chap. 17, this volume) found
that the public was willing to pay US$10.06 (38 NIS) a year for the containment
efforts of invasive species and US$10.63 (40.12 NIS) for its elimination from a
national park. Certainly, as the society becomes more involved in the conservation
or restoration of natural ecosystems in general (not only the beach and coastal
296
O. Pérez-Maqueo et al.
actions, such as use of machinery, planting, fencing, elimination of exotics,
remobilization of stabilized dunes, geotubes, sod cutting, and even tree felling
(Table 18.3). The goals of these activities are not as diverse, and mostly include
protection of endangered or native species; restoring mobility and native flora;
recreation, protection, and aesthetic. Indeed, the costs involved in these actions are
equally variable. In the data we gathered, we noticed that removal of unwanted
vegetation by means of sod cutting, tree felling, and elimination of exotics was, no
doubt, amongst the most expensive coastal dune restoration actions. Likewise,
creating an artificial dune and planting it with native vegetation was a very
expensive activity in Denmark (US$77,393/ha), but it seems to have been successful (Table 18.3) (Vestergaard, Chap. 4, this volume), with high annual
maintenance costs (US$2,229/ha; Table 18.3). Coastal dune re-mobilization is also
a difficult and expensive task and needs to be repeated every few years (Arens
et al., Chap. 7, this volume).
Although the information is still not readily available, and restoration actions
are scattered in different countries and take place with different intensities, millions of dollars are already being spent on this activity. For instance, in The
Netherlands, there have been more than 100 restoration projects over the last
20 years that, overall, have cost from 10 to 20 million Euros (Grootjans, personal
communication). In Spain, more than one million Euros were spent on recovering
the native maritime juniper woodlands in Andalusia in a project that lasted 5 years
(Muñoz-Reinoso et al., Chap. 9, this volume).
It is also interesting to notice that funding for restoration actions almost always
comes from local and federal governments, and usually restoration is performed in
national parks, nature reserves, and on public beaches (Table 18.3). An exception
to this were the activities that were carried out in Galveston, Texas (USA), where
private owners and stakeholders paid for beach and coastal dune restoration as an
investment in the protection of their properties against the recurring impacts of
hurricanes. In this case, the owners felt that the original dune and swale structure
had protected their homes from incurring much greater expense during Hurricane
Ike. Moreover, residents said that the reconstructed dunes also enhanced the
aesthetic value of their property and buffered them from public intrusion onto their
property (Feagin, Chap. 6, this volume; Table 18.3).
Besides the government and stakeholders being interested in paying for coastal
dune restoration programs, the public, in general, seems to be gradually becoming
more and more interested in these actions (Table 18.3). For instance, volunteer
work for either planting dune vegetation (Grootjans et al., Chap. 15, this volume)
or removing invasive species (Pickart, Chap. 10, this volume) has played a key
role in achieving the goals of restoration in the Netherlands and the USA
respectively. Additionally, in Israel, Lehrer et al. (Chap. 17, this volume) found
that the public was willing to pay US$10.06 (38 NIS) a year for the containment
efforts of invasive species and US$10.63 (40.12 NIS) for its elimination from a
national park. Certainly, as the society becomes more involved in the conservation
or restoration of natural ecosystems in general (not only the beach and coastal
296
O. Pérez-Maqueo et al.