In fact, ecological theory on plant succession was first described in coastal dunes a
century ago (Cowles 1899), and there is still ongoing research on how community
dynamics works in these ecosystems.
Socially, a large fraction of the global human population lives at or near the
coast (Martínez et al. 2007); many cities are also located here, and have developed
on top of dunes. Twenty-one of the 33 megacities ([10 million inhabitants) of the
world are located at the coast and population growth trends indicate that here,
human population will continue increasing at a faster rate than inland (Martínez
et al. 2007). This human preference results in urban development and the construction of infrastructure, which transforms and even destroys coastal dunes.
Economically, tourism, one of the largest industries in the world, takes place
predominantly at the coast, especially on sandy coasts, yielding millions of dollars
in revenue. Besides these direct economic benefits, coastal dunes are also highly
relevant to humans, since they offer many ecosystem services to society, such as
the protection of human structures from erosion as well as the impact of hurricanes
and storms by providing sediments, a physical barrier, or resistant vegetation
(Nordstrom and Jackson, Chap. 2, this volume). Protection, in particular, will
become increasingly relevant because of the encroaching human population at the
coast, and also because of the risks associated with global climate change such as
an increasing sea level and storminess (Webster et al. 2005).
Other additional ecosystem services provided by sandy coasts and coastal dunes
include: sand and minerals for extraction, retention and purification of ground
water, raw materials, plants with pharmaceutical use, food for primary and higher
trophic level consumers, habitats and refuge for plants and animals, recreation,
education, scientific research, cultural and environmental heritage (Bell and Leeworthy 1990; King 1995; Lubke and Avis 1998; Arens et al. 2001; Peterson and
Lipcius 2003; Everard et al. 2010; Nordstrom and Jackson, Chap. 2, this volume).
In spite of the evident relevance of coastal dunes, they are threatened by human
encroachment throughout the world. As they are lost, the ecosystem services
provided by them will be lost too. Because the economic value of the ecosystem
services has seldom been assessed, the ecological and socio-economic consequences of their destruction remain largely unknown. Large amounts of money
have already been invested in coastal dune restoration and, since destruction
continues, restoration needs (and their costs) will also increase. Given this scenario, it is relevant to analyze what would be the best option for our beaches and
coastal dunes: to restore? To conserve these ecosystems and manage their ecosystem services? Should we sustain the status quo because of immediate revenues?
An important question to answer is: what are the costs of our coasts? What are the
costs of restoring beaches and coastal dunes, and what are the economic benefits
derived from ecosystem services provided by them?
In this chapter we aim to achieve three goals: first, we performed a literature
search to assess a proxy estimate of the economic value of the beach and coastal
dunes in terms of their ecosystem services. Second, we used the information that
was available on the costs of restoration projects described in this book, which
have been performed on beaches and coastal dunes in different countries: New
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O. Pérez-Maqueo et al.
century ago (Cowles 1899), and there is still ongoing research on how community
dynamics works in these ecosystems.
Socially, a large fraction of the global human population lives at or near the
coast (Martínez et al. 2007); many cities are also located here, and have developed
on top of dunes. Twenty-one of the 33 megacities ([10 million inhabitants) of the
world are located at the coast and population growth trends indicate that here,
human population will continue increasing at a faster rate than inland (Martínez
et al. 2007). This human preference results in urban development and the construction of infrastructure, which transforms and even destroys coastal dunes.
Economically, tourism, one of the largest industries in the world, takes place
predominantly at the coast, especially on sandy coasts, yielding millions of dollars
in revenue. Besides these direct economic benefits, coastal dunes are also highly
relevant to humans, since they offer many ecosystem services to society, such as
the protection of human structures from erosion as well as the impact of hurricanes
and storms by providing sediments, a physical barrier, or resistant vegetation
(Nordstrom and Jackson, Chap. 2, this volume). Protection, in particular, will
become increasingly relevant because of the encroaching human population at the
coast, and also because of the risks associated with global climate change such as
an increasing sea level and storminess (Webster et al. 2005).
Other additional ecosystem services provided by sandy coasts and coastal dunes
include: sand and minerals for extraction, retention and purification of ground
water, raw materials, plants with pharmaceutical use, food for primary and higher
trophic level consumers, habitats and refuge for plants and animals, recreation,
education, scientific research, cultural and environmental heritage (Bell and Leeworthy 1990; King 1995; Lubke and Avis 1998; Arens et al. 2001; Peterson and
Lipcius 2003; Everard et al. 2010; Nordstrom and Jackson, Chap. 2, this volume).
In spite of the evident relevance of coastal dunes, they are threatened by human
encroachment throughout the world. As they are lost, the ecosystem services
provided by them will be lost too. Because the economic value of the ecosystem
services has seldom been assessed, the ecological and socio-economic consequences of their destruction remain largely unknown. Large amounts of money
have already been invested in coastal dune restoration and, since destruction
continues, restoration needs (and their costs) will also increase. Given this scenario, it is relevant to analyze what would be the best option for our beaches and
coastal dunes: to restore? To conserve these ecosystems and manage their ecosystem services? Should we sustain the status quo because of immediate revenues?
An important question to answer is: what are the costs of our coasts? What are the
costs of restoring beaches and coastal dunes, and what are the economic benefits
derived from ecosystem services provided by them?
In this chapter we aim to achieve three goals: first, we performed a literature
search to assess a proxy estimate of the economic value of the beach and coastal
dunes in terms of their ecosystem services. Second, we used the information that
was available on the costs of restoration projects described in this book, which
have been performed on beaches and coastal dunes in different countries: New
290
O. Pérez-Maqueo et al.