A first impression
7
1.2. Exploration of the oceans
In section 1.2.1 we mention some of the important facts of oceanographic history. The availability of data in the modern era and the relatively easy processing
of all these data today is discussed in section 1.2.2.
1.2.1. A tiny bit of history
Both the Vikings and the Polynesians made use of their experience with ocean
currents in their exploration of new areas in the Atlantic and Pacific, respectively.
The Normans for example had settlements near New Foundland around the year
1000 AD and travelled back and forth to their home country using Atlantic currents.
First documented knowledge on the ocean currents was gathered during the
expeditions of Christopher Columbus (1492–1494), Vasco da Gama (1497–1499)
and Ferdinand Magellan (1519–1522). Columbus pioneered the measurements
of currents in the Atlantic. These measurements were continued by James Cook
(1728–1779) on the ships the Endeavour, the Resolution and the Adventure, and
by Charles Darwin (1809–1882) on the Beagle. It was James Clark Ross and John
Ross who crossed the Arctic and Antarctic with the Victory, the Isabella and the
Erebus.
The first map of the Gulf Stream was made in 1769 by Benjamin Franklin and
Timothy Folger (Fig. 1.3) and was motivated by the problem to reduce the time
to cross the Atlantic. Each ship captain was advised to follow the Gulf Stream
to Britain and to avoid it when going back to the United States. It is quite likely
that the existence of the Gulf Stream contributed to the discovery of America.
In Columbus’ time, wood and other objects frequently appeared on the coast of
Norway, Scotland and Ireland. For someone like Columbus this may have lead to
the idea that there had to be land westward of Europe.
An important discovery was made in 1751 near 24 ◦ N in the Atlantic by Henry
Ellis, captain of a British slave transport vessel. Using a new instrument, that had
been developed by British preacher Stephen Hales, he measured the temperature
of the deep ocean and found that the deep water was unexpectedly cold. Although
the impact of these measurements would become clear only two centuries later,
Ellis had discovered a characteristic of the global ocean circulation: deep water
is relatively cold everywhere. Until that time, it was believed that the heat would
have diffused from the surface to deep layers. This riddle was solved by Count
Rumford in the early 1800s: the cold water sinks in polar seas and moves equatorward through deep currents.
In the 19th century, many incidental measurements on ships followed which
were collected and analyzed by the American scientist Maury (1806-1873).
Maury was the first to make detailed maps of winds and currents and wrote the
7
1.2. Exploration of the oceans
In section 1.2.1 we mention some of the important facts of oceanographic history. The availability of data in the modern era and the relatively easy processing
of all these data today is discussed in section 1.2.2.
1.2.1. A tiny bit of history
Both the Vikings and the Polynesians made use of their experience with ocean
currents in their exploration of new areas in the Atlantic and Pacific, respectively.
The Normans for example had settlements near New Foundland around the year
1000 AD and travelled back and forth to their home country using Atlantic currents.
First documented knowledge on the ocean currents was gathered during the
expeditions of Christopher Columbus (1492–1494), Vasco da Gama (1497–1499)
and Ferdinand Magellan (1519–1522). Columbus pioneered the measurements
of currents in the Atlantic. These measurements were continued by James Cook
(1728–1779) on the ships the Endeavour, the Resolution and the Adventure, and
by Charles Darwin (1809–1882) on the Beagle. It was James Clark Ross and John
Ross who crossed the Arctic and Antarctic with the Victory, the Isabella and the
Erebus.
The first map of the Gulf Stream was made in 1769 by Benjamin Franklin and
Timothy Folger (Fig. 1.3) and was motivated by the problem to reduce the time
to cross the Atlantic. Each ship captain was advised to follow the Gulf Stream
to Britain and to avoid it when going back to the United States. It is quite likely
that the existence of the Gulf Stream contributed to the discovery of America.
In Columbus’ time, wood and other objects frequently appeared on the coast of
Norway, Scotland and Ireland. For someone like Columbus this may have lead to
the idea that there had to be land westward of Europe.
An important discovery was made in 1751 near 24 ◦ N in the Atlantic by Henry
Ellis, captain of a British slave transport vessel. Using a new instrument, that had
been developed by British preacher Stephen Hales, he measured the temperature
of the deep ocean and found that the deep water was unexpectedly cold. Although
the impact of these measurements would become clear only two centuries later,
Ellis had discovered a characteristic of the global ocean circulation: deep water
is relatively cold everywhere. Until that time, it was believed that the heat would
have diffused from the surface to deep layers. This riddle was solved by Count
Rumford in the early 1800s: the cold water sinks in polar seas and moves equatorward through deep currents.
In the 19th century, many incidental measurements on ships followed which
were collected and analyzed by the American scientist Maury (1806-1873).
Maury was the first to make detailed maps of winds and currents and wrote the