7.2.1
Inherent optical characteristics of the upper ocean water ....................451
7.2.2
Influence of bubbles on optical scattering in the upper ocean .............453
7.3
Marine Chemistry and Biology ......................................................................456
7.4
Ocean Acoustics.............................................................................................459
7.4.1
Effects of stratification .........................................................................460
7.4.2
Biological scattering layers ..................................................................461
7.4.3
Effects of bubbles on sound propagation .............................................463
7.4.4
Acoustic technique for measuring bubble size distributions................467
7.4.5
Ambient noise produced by bubbles ....................................................469
7.4.6
Ambient noise produced by rain ..........................................................470
7.4.7
Passive acoustic monitoring of sea surface processes..........................473
7.5
Air-Sea Gas Exchange ...................................................................................480
7.5.1
Bulk-flux formulation...........................................................................480
7.5.2
Interfacial component...........................................................................482
7.5.3
Bubble-mediated component................................................................485
7.5.4
Comparison with field data ..................................................................486
7.5.5
Fine thermohaline structure and gas exchange.....................................489
7.5.6
Remote sensing of gas exchange..........................................................495
7.6
Ocean and Climate Modeling.........................................................................496
7.6.1
Air-Sea Fluxes......................................................................................498
7.6.2
Subgrid Scale Mixing Parameterization...............................................501
7.6.3
Interactions ...........................................................................................502
Mathematical Notations
505
References
513
Subject Index
561
7.
APPLICATIONS .......................................................................439
7.1
Remote Sensing of the Ocean ........................................................................439
7.1.1
Remote sensing of surface winds .........................................................440
7.1.2
Sea surface temperature........................................................................441
7.1.3
Sea surface salinity...............................................................................444
7.1.4
Surface ocean currents..........................................................................446
7.1.5
Microwave imagery..............................................................................447
7.1.6
Monochromatic and color imagery ......................................................447
7.2
Marine Optics.................................................................................................451
x
THE NEAR-SURFACE LAYER OF THE OCEAN