classification. Continuing warming past the
threshold would imply that areas where this climate type is found today in the west will no longer
be present. Similar results by Shi et al. (2012)
show a pronounced decrease of the cold climate
types over China, including the tundra over the
Tibetan Plateau.
This book uses a method to delineate
regional-scale ecosystems based on the Ko ¨ppen
climate classification system. It should be
pointed out that different methods give different
predictions about the future distribution of global
vegetation (and therefore ecosystem) patterns (e.
g., Emanuel et al. 1985; Prentice et al. 1992;
Claussen and Esch 1994; Wu et al. 2010; Zoltai
1988). It should also be noted that even if climate
change and increased CO 2 does not affect the
redistribution of some ecoregions, it could
change their productivity and carbon storage
(Parton et al. 1995).
10.3 Summary
Climate acts as the primary control for ecosystem
distribution, and for the ecoregions derived from
that distribution. Consequently, as the climate
varies, so do the ecoregions. Climatic changes
on the Earth during the past 500,000 years have
been dramatic, resulting in ecoregion redistribution. Long-term climatic changes are attributable
not to any single cause but to a collective set of
causes: changing configuration and position of
the continents (caused by plate tectonics); uplift
of mountain chains; volcanic activity; output of
solar radiation; and the amount of solar radiation
received at the Earth’s surface consequent to the
Milankovitch cycles. Classifications that recognize the dependence of ecoregions on climate
provide one means of constructing maps to display the impact of climate change on the geography of global ecoregions. A series of maps of the
Ko ¨ppen climate classification, as modified by
Trewartha, was compared to Ko ¨ppen map
simulations based on models of climate under
elevated atmospheric CO 2 concentrations.
Results of studies show that the zones
representing tropical rain climates and dry
climates become larger and the zones identified
with boreal forest and snow climates together
with the polar climates become smaller. Climate
change can cause a reduction in the spatial extent
of a community. Montane coniferous forest and
alpine tundra are examples of communities
which will probably be reduced in extent as a
direct result of climate change.
References
Baker B, Diaz H, Hargrove WW et al (2010) Use of the
Ko ¨ppen-Trewartha climate classification to evaluate
climatic refugia in statistically derived ecoregions for
the People’s Republic of China. Clim Change
98:113–131
Barnes BV (2009) Tree response to ecosystem change at
the landscape level in eastern North America.
Forstarchiv 80(3):76–89
Brown JH (1995) Macroecology. University of Chicago
Press, Chicago, 269 pp
Chen D, Chen HW (2013) Using the Ko ¨ppen classification to quantify climate variation and change: an
example for 1901-2010. Environmental Development.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2013.03.007
Christopherson RW (2000) Geosystems: an introduction
to physical geography, 4th edn. Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, NJ, 626 pp
Claussen M, Esch M (1994) Biomes computed from
simulated climatologies. Climate Dynam 9:235–243
De Castro M, Gallardo C, Jylha K, Tuomenvirta H (2007)
The use of a climate-type classification for assessing
climate change effects in Europe from an ensemble of
nine regional climate models. Clim Change 81:329–341
Delcourt PA, Delcourt HR (1987) Long-term forest
dynamics of the temperate zone (Chapter 10). Ecological studies, vol 63. Springer, New York, pp 374–398
Diaz HF, Eischeid JK (2007) Disappearing “alpine tundra” Ko ¨ppen climatic type in the western United
States. Geophys Res Lett 34, L18707
Emanuel WR, Shugart HH, Stevenson MP (1985) Climatic change and the broad-scale distribution of
terrestrial ecosystem complexes. Clim Change
7:29–43
Fairbridge RW (1963) Africa ice-age aridity. In: Nairn
AEM (ed) Problems in paleoclimatology. Wiley,
London, pp 356–363
Gao XJ, Giorgi F (2008) Increased aridity in the Mediterranean region under greenhouse gas forcing estimated
from high resolution RCM simulation and the driving
GCM. Global Planet Change 62:195–209
Gilbert GK (1890) Lake Bonneville. U.S. Geological
Survey Monograph 1. U.S. Geological Survey,
Washington, DC, 438 pp
Gregory S (1954) Climate classification and climatic
change. Erdkunde 8(4):246–252
102
10 Ecoregions and Climate Change
threshold would imply that areas where this climate type is found today in the west will no longer
be present. Similar results by Shi et al. (2012)
show a pronounced decrease of the cold climate
types over China, including the tundra over the
Tibetan Plateau.
This book uses a method to delineate
regional-scale ecosystems based on the Ko ¨ppen
climate classification system. It should be
pointed out that different methods give different
predictions about the future distribution of global
vegetation (and therefore ecosystem) patterns (e.
g., Emanuel et al. 1985; Prentice et al. 1992;
Claussen and Esch 1994; Wu et al. 2010; Zoltai
1988). It should also be noted that even if climate
change and increased CO 2 does not affect the
redistribution of some ecoregions, it could
change their productivity and carbon storage
(Parton et al. 1995).
10.3 Summary
Climate acts as the primary control for ecosystem
distribution, and for the ecoregions derived from
that distribution. Consequently, as the climate
varies, so do the ecoregions. Climatic changes
on the Earth during the past 500,000 years have
been dramatic, resulting in ecoregion redistribution. Long-term climatic changes are attributable
not to any single cause but to a collective set of
causes: changing configuration and position of
the continents (caused by plate tectonics); uplift
of mountain chains; volcanic activity; output of
solar radiation; and the amount of solar radiation
received at the Earth’s surface consequent to the
Milankovitch cycles. Classifications that recognize the dependence of ecoregions on climate
provide one means of constructing maps to display the impact of climate change on the geography of global ecoregions. A series of maps of the
Ko ¨ppen climate classification, as modified by
Trewartha, was compared to Ko ¨ppen map
simulations based on models of climate under
elevated atmospheric CO 2 concentrations.
Results of studies show that the zones
representing tropical rain climates and dry
climates become larger and the zones identified
with boreal forest and snow climates together
with the polar climates become smaller. Climate
change can cause a reduction in the spatial extent
of a community. Montane coniferous forest and
alpine tundra are examples of communities
which will probably be reduced in extent as a
direct result of climate change.
References
Baker B, Diaz H, Hargrove WW et al (2010) Use of the
Ko ¨ppen-Trewartha climate classification to evaluate
climatic refugia in statistically derived ecoregions for
the People’s Republic of China. Clim Change
98:113–131
Barnes BV (2009) Tree response to ecosystem change at
the landscape level in eastern North America.
Forstarchiv 80(3):76–89
Brown JH (1995) Macroecology. University of Chicago
Press, Chicago, 269 pp
Chen D, Chen HW (2013) Using the Ko ¨ppen classification to quantify climate variation and change: an
example for 1901-2010. Environmental Development.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2013.03.007
Christopherson RW (2000) Geosystems: an introduction
to physical geography, 4th edn. Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, NJ, 626 pp
Claussen M, Esch M (1994) Biomes computed from
simulated climatologies. Climate Dynam 9:235–243
De Castro M, Gallardo C, Jylha K, Tuomenvirta H (2007)
The use of a climate-type classification for assessing
climate change effects in Europe from an ensemble of
nine regional climate models. Clim Change 81:329–341
Delcourt PA, Delcourt HR (1987) Long-term forest
dynamics of the temperate zone (Chapter 10). Ecological studies, vol 63. Springer, New York, pp 374–398
Diaz HF, Eischeid JK (2007) Disappearing “alpine tundra” Ko ¨ppen climatic type in the western United
States. Geophys Res Lett 34, L18707
Emanuel WR, Shugart HH, Stevenson MP (1985) Climatic change and the broad-scale distribution of
terrestrial ecosystem complexes. Clim Change
7:29–43
Fairbridge RW (1963) Africa ice-age aridity. In: Nairn
AEM (ed) Problems in paleoclimatology. Wiley,
London, pp 356–363
Gao XJ, Giorgi F (2008) Increased aridity in the Mediterranean region under greenhouse gas forcing estimated
from high resolution RCM simulation and the driving
GCM. Global Planet Change 62:195–209
Gilbert GK (1890) Lake Bonneville. U.S. Geological
Survey Monograph 1. U.S. Geological Survey,
Washington, DC, 438 pp
Gregory S (1954) Climate classification and climatic
change. Erdkunde 8(4):246–252
102
10 Ecoregions and Climate Change