et al. 2013). In comparison, Cambrian agglutinated Foraminifera consist mainly of
microgranular quartz, with inclusions of feldspar, clay minerals and opaque minerals
(McIlroy et al. 2001). Du Châtelet et al. (2013) observed that proportion of quartz used
by Foraminifera was species dependent and detected only a single grain of calcite. In
general, agglutinated Foraminifera are not commonly regarded as calcifying,
although, some species (e.g. Textularia oviedoiana) produce a low Mg calcitic matrix
comparable in composition to the needles of miliolids (Bender and Hemleben 1988).
3 Physiological Adaptations
3.1 Feeding Strategy
Ostracods exhibit a wide variety of feeding strategies. Large planktonic ostracods
usually are active predators, although it is still unclear whether they catch living or/
and dead prey/food items (Vannier et al. 1998). Other pelagic halocyprids probably
feed on suspended material: these are likely to be microphagous feeders utilizing
foraminifers, diatoms, silicoflagellates and detrital aggregates as well (Angel 1990).
Other myodocopids, which are mainly benthic dwellers, are either filter-feeders
(e.g. cylindroleberidinids: Cannon 1933), carnivorous scavengers (e.g. cypridinids:
Cohen 1983; Vannier and Abe 1993; Vannier et al. 1998), detritus feeders (e.g.
philomedids: Hartmann 1975) and predators on small invertebrates (e.g. rutidermatids: Cohen and Kornicker 1987).
Ostracods display numerous morphological adaptations for their feeding strategy. Adaptation to scavenging and predation is reflected in the morphology of their
mandibles, maxillulae (4th limbs), maxillae (5th limbs), and furcal lamellae.
Powerful furca are used as a gripping tool to hold moving prey or to anchor onto a
dead prey item. The feeding appendages are involved in capturing and physical
breakdown of food, passing food pieces into the mouth, tearing off lumps of prey
soft body and biting (Vannier et al. 1998). Planktonic halocyprids use their furca for
selective rejection of food items from within the carapace (Lochhead 1968; Vannier
et al. 1998). Filter-feeding species developed large vibratory plates that generate
continuous flow fields across the body that serve a respiratory as well as feeding
function. Mandibles of freshwater podocopids consist of masticatory processes with
strong teeth and well developed vibratory plates. Masticatory processes associated
with the lower lip form so-called food-rakes which assist the mandibles in breaking
down food and passing it into the mouth (Meisch 2000). The parasitic form Sheina
orri (Cypridinidae) uses its mandibular and maxillar claws to anchor itself to the gill
tissues of its shark host (Bennett et al. 1997; Vannier et al. 1998).
As a group, the Foraminifera utilise also a broad range of feeding strategies—
from osmotrophy to various holotrophic mechanisms (Pawlowski et al. 2003).
Carboniferous fusulinids were most probably active herbivores, detritivores and
omnivores (Gallagher 1998). Modern foraminifers acquire nutrients through direct
The Adaptations of the Foraminifera and Ostracoda …
97
microgranular quartz, with inclusions of feldspar, clay minerals and opaque minerals
(McIlroy et al. 2001). Du Châtelet et al. (2013) observed that proportion of quartz used
by Foraminifera was species dependent and detected only a single grain of calcite. In
general, agglutinated Foraminifera are not commonly regarded as calcifying,
although, some species (e.g. Textularia oviedoiana) produce a low Mg calcitic matrix
comparable in composition to the needles of miliolids (Bender and Hemleben 1988).
3 Physiological Adaptations
3.1 Feeding Strategy
Ostracods exhibit a wide variety of feeding strategies. Large planktonic ostracods
usually are active predators, although it is still unclear whether they catch living or/
and dead prey/food items (Vannier et al. 1998). Other pelagic halocyprids probably
feed on suspended material: these are likely to be microphagous feeders utilizing
foraminifers, diatoms, silicoflagellates and detrital aggregates as well (Angel 1990).
Other myodocopids, which are mainly benthic dwellers, are either filter-feeders
(e.g. cylindroleberidinids: Cannon 1933), carnivorous scavengers (e.g. cypridinids:
Cohen 1983; Vannier and Abe 1993; Vannier et al. 1998), detritus feeders (e.g.
philomedids: Hartmann 1975) and predators on small invertebrates (e.g. rutidermatids: Cohen and Kornicker 1987).
Ostracods display numerous morphological adaptations for their feeding strategy. Adaptation to scavenging and predation is reflected in the morphology of their
mandibles, maxillulae (4th limbs), maxillae (5th limbs), and furcal lamellae.
Powerful furca are used as a gripping tool to hold moving prey or to anchor onto a
dead prey item. The feeding appendages are involved in capturing and physical
breakdown of food, passing food pieces into the mouth, tearing off lumps of prey
soft body and biting (Vannier et al. 1998). Planktonic halocyprids use their furca for
selective rejection of food items from within the carapace (Lochhead 1968; Vannier
et al. 1998). Filter-feeding species developed large vibratory plates that generate
continuous flow fields across the body that serve a respiratory as well as feeding
function. Mandibles of freshwater podocopids consist of masticatory processes with
strong teeth and well developed vibratory plates. Masticatory processes associated
with the lower lip form so-called food-rakes which assist the mandibles in breaking
down food and passing it into the mouth (Meisch 2000). The parasitic form Sheina
orri (Cypridinidae) uses its mandibular and maxillar claws to anchor itself to the gill
tissues of its shark host (Bennett et al. 1997; Vannier et al. 1998).
As a group, the Foraminifera utilise also a broad range of feeding strategies—
from osmotrophy to various holotrophic mechanisms (Pawlowski et al. 2003).
Carboniferous fusulinids were most probably active herbivores, detritivores and
omnivores (Gallagher 1998). Modern foraminifers acquire nutrients through direct
The Adaptations of the Foraminifera and Ostracoda …
97