extreme temperature differences are included, they do not have an impact on
agricultural output; however, when rainfall is not controlled for, extreme temperatures have a positive impact on agricultural output, as they do with nonagricultural
output, which refers to the volatility in agricultural output with extreme temperatures. Further, while coastal districts have a positive impact on nonagricultural
output (which is plausible), they experience significantly decreased agricultural
output, due to their salinity and other effects.
8 Policy Implications
What are the policy implications of this research? The results emphasize that Indian
agriculture continues to be dependent on conducive temperatures; if climate change
increases the difference between maximum and minimum temperatures, then we
certainly expect Indian agriculture to be more volatile. This could pose problems of
food security. Coastal locations experience decreases in agricultural output per
capita, due to well-established reasons—salinity, their rocky or sandy nature,
depending on the type of coastline.
Frequently, as discussed at the beginning, cities exacerbate the impacts of
extreme temperatures due to the use of vehicles and emissions thereof. Hence,
Indian cities should encourage the use of nonmotorized traffic, which is environmentally friendly. Sridhar (2015) demonstrates several ways in which this can be
done in Indian cities.
Coastal districts have higher nonagricultural output, which is understandable,
given they are windows to the external world, and provide access to markets
outside. Initiatives such as special economic zones in India are meant to capitalize
on this advantage of coastal locations. Extreme temperatures increase nonagricultural output, which implies that when agriculture is adversely impacted, economic
resources shift to nonagricultural activity. While we need more of both agricultural
and nonagricultural output for greater overall welfare, the effect of extreme temperatures can be minimized. Vehicular emissions which lead to extreme temperatures by polluting the environment can be abated by encouraging the use of
bicycles, pedestrianization, and mass transit systems. For this, mixed land use, not
strict zoning, should be encouraged in the context of developing cities of India, as a
paper by GIZ (2010) points out.
We find interestingly that non-agricultural output continues to be dependent on
rainfall, due to the increased consumer confidence agriculture has on nonagricultural spending; hence, rainwater harvesting and methods of supplementing urban
agriculture activities with water should be proactively pursued.
Further, coastal areas are characterized by salinity which restricts agricultural
output in these areas, consistent with what other studies find. Hence, it is necessary
to at least have an assessment of soil salinity to enable increasing agricultural output
in such areas.
Economic Impacts of Climate Change in India’s Cities
293
agricultural output; however, when rainfall is not controlled for, extreme temperatures have a positive impact on agricultural output, as they do with nonagricultural
output, which refers to the volatility in agricultural output with extreme temperatures. Further, while coastal districts have a positive impact on nonagricultural
output (which is plausible), they experience significantly decreased agricultural
output, due to their salinity and other effects.
8 Policy Implications
What are the policy implications of this research? The results emphasize that Indian
agriculture continues to be dependent on conducive temperatures; if climate change
increases the difference between maximum and minimum temperatures, then we
certainly expect Indian agriculture to be more volatile. This could pose problems of
food security. Coastal locations experience decreases in agricultural output per
capita, due to well-established reasons—salinity, their rocky or sandy nature,
depending on the type of coastline.
Frequently, as discussed at the beginning, cities exacerbate the impacts of
extreme temperatures due to the use of vehicles and emissions thereof. Hence,
Indian cities should encourage the use of nonmotorized traffic, which is environmentally friendly. Sridhar (2015) demonstrates several ways in which this can be
done in Indian cities.
Coastal districts have higher nonagricultural output, which is understandable,
given they are windows to the external world, and provide access to markets
outside. Initiatives such as special economic zones in India are meant to capitalize
on this advantage of coastal locations. Extreme temperatures increase nonagricultural output, which implies that when agriculture is adversely impacted, economic
resources shift to nonagricultural activity. While we need more of both agricultural
and nonagricultural output for greater overall welfare, the effect of extreme temperatures can be minimized. Vehicular emissions which lead to extreme temperatures by polluting the environment can be abated by encouraging the use of
bicycles, pedestrianization, and mass transit systems. For this, mixed land use, not
strict zoning, should be encouraged in the context of developing cities of India, as a
paper by GIZ (2010) points out.
We find interestingly that non-agricultural output continues to be dependent on
rainfall, due to the increased consumer confidence agriculture has on nonagricultural spending; hence, rainwater harvesting and methods of supplementing urban
agriculture activities with water should be proactively pursued.
Further, coastal areas are characterized by salinity which restricts agricultural
output in these areas, consistent with what other studies find. Hence, it is necessary
to at least have an assessment of soil salinity to enable increasing agricultural output
in such areas.
Economic Impacts of Climate Change in India’s Cities
293