XII
Table of Contents
2.8 Other Analytical Properties .
83
Questions .. . . . . . . . . . . .
87
Seminars: Numerical Problems .
89
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . .
100
3 Traceability: Reference Materials
101
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . .
102
3.2 The Integral Concept of Traceability . .
102
3.3 Physical and Chemical Traceability. . .
105
3.4 Types of Standards and their Traceability .
107
3.5 Analytical Chemical Standards
112
3.5.1 Types. . . . . . . . . . .
113
3.5.2 General Properties ...
116
3.5.3 Preparation and Storage
. . . . . . . .
119
3.5.4 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
122
3.5.4.1 Calibration of Equipment and Methods
123
3.5.4.2 Evaluation of Analytical Processes
128
3.6 Specific Meanings of Traceability . . . . .
130
3.6.1 Traceability of an Analytical Result .
130
3.6.2 Traceability of a Sample (Aliquot)
132
3.6.3 Traceability of an Instrument . . . .
134
3.6.4 Traceability of a Sample Standard . .
134
3.6.5 Traceability of a Method . . . . . . .
135
3.6.6 Relationships among Traceability Meanings . .
135
Questions . . . . . . .
137
Seminars . . . . . . .
139
Suggested Readings
141
4 The Measurement Process in Chemistry .......
143
4.1 Definition of Chemical Measurement Process ....
144
4.2 General Steps of a Chemical Measurement Process
147
4.3 Preliminary Operations . . . . . . . . . . . .
149
4.3.1 General Features
150
4.3.2 Sub-steps . . . . .
154
4.3.3 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
155
4.3.4 Sample Treatment . . . . . . . . . .
161
4.4 Measurement and Transducing of the Analytical Signal
168
4.5 Signal Acquisition and Data Processing . . . . .
171
4.6 Validation of a Chemical Measurement Process .
173
4.7 Salient Current Trends
174
Annex I ..
AnnexII ..
Annex III .
177
182
186