Advances and Constraints of Seaweed Farming 79
effects on the native fauna (Soto et al. 2001, 2006; Becker et al. 2007). In Chile, these aspects have also
been the center of debate on the relationship between aquaculture and the environment (Buschmann et al.
2006a), resulting in a search for alternatives that contribute to reducing potentially adverse environmental
externalities (Buschmann et al. 2009).
From a production efficiency perspective, in terms of use of the environment for aquaculture
activities, it has been calculated that the area required to obtain all the resources necessary to maintain
the productive cycle and, furthermore, to assimilate waste material produced—the “ecological footprint”
—ranges from values of around 4–5 Hectares per cultivated hectare, to values as high as 50,000 hectares
for each cultured hectare (Folke et al. 1998). This variability depends, principally, on the culture methods
used and the species cultured. Thus, in general, carnivorous organisms have a greater ecological footprint,
by one or two orders of magnitude, than extractive organisms (filterers and algae), which do not require an
exogenous energetic supplement in the environment (Folke and Kautsky 1989; Folke et al. 1998). Based
on this information, installation of waste recycling systems in aquaculture sites, that is, using different
types of organisms that remove these harmful elements from the ecosystem has been proposed (Troell
et al. 1999; Buschmann et al. 2008a; Chopin et al. 2008). These integrated aquaculture systems, using
multiple species with different trophic levels, are referred to as Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture
(IMTA) (Chopin et al. 2001). Nevertheless, as will be mentioned later in this study, a critical evaluation
is necessary as to why these systems have not been developed in Chile, in spite of the significant levels of
aquaculture development reached over the past few decades (Buschmann et al. 2009).
Given this environmental context, this study outlines the function of algal cultures as organisms
that extract inorganic elements, such as carbon, phosphor, and nitrogen, thus favoring coastal ecosystem
health. At present, certain coastal eutrophication processes are related to the appearance of algal blooms,
both of micro and macroalgae, constituting one of the biggest environmental problems affecting coastal
zones globally (Clarke et al. 2006; Conley et al. 2009). Eutrophication is directly associated with emissions
of inorganic elements, such as nitrogen compounds (nitrate and ammonium), and these compounds
originate from urban waste, agricultural activities, and deforestation, and reach coastal zones transported
by fresh water bodies, in addition to those produced by the aquaculture activity itself (Anderson et al.
2002; Buschmann et al. 2006a; Liu et al. 2012). In this study, we present an analysis of aquaculture
development, emphasizing the recent developments in Chile, especially associated to advantages and
restrictions of the incorporation of algae generating new business opportunities, while ensuring a more
sustainable aquaculture by minimizing the effects produced by an excess of inorganic nutrients in coastal
zones. The results of previously published studies have provided an exhaustive account of progress made
and future challenges of algal culture in Chile, and, as a result, this line of discussion is not included in
this study (see revision Buschmann et al. 2008b).
Recent aquaculture development in Chile
Marine aquaculture increased in Chile from a total production of 361,000 t in 1998 to over 870,000 t
throughout 2010 (Buschmann et al. 2013). Globally, this situated Chile among the 10 largest producers
and as the number one producer of marine aquaculture in the western hemisphere. During the same
period, salmon culture became the principal aquaculture activity in Chile, reaching peak production levels
of 630.647 t in 2006, subsequently experiencing a decline (Buschmann et al. 2013) as a result of the ISA
virus (Godoy et al. 2008). The combined total of mollusk production (mainly abalones, mussels, scallops,
and oysters), reached 212,210 t in 2010, the main product being muss mussels (Buschmann et al. 2013).
In the case of the exploited algal species (Fig. 1), have been increasing in time specially for different
brown algae reaching above 272,000 and 313,000 t in 2010 and 2011 respectively (Table 1). Red algae
reached an exploitation value of 104,000 t in 2011 (Table 1). During the last few years, commercial
production of microalgae is developing with a total biomass production of over 400,000 t (Table 1).
Farmed algal statistics for 2001 showed that only Gracilaria chilensis C. J. Bird, J. McLachlan, &
E.C. Oliveira was cultivated in Chile, but in 2010 statistics indicated that in addition microalgae and the
brown alga Macrocystis pyrifera (L.) C. Agardh are adding some biomass to the total algal farming in the
country (Table 2; Fig. 2). Overall, this algal biomass contributes to the production of agar, carrageenan,
effects on the native fauna (Soto et al. 2001, 2006; Becker et al. 2007). In Chile, these aspects have also
been the center of debate on the relationship between aquaculture and the environment (Buschmann et al.
2006a), resulting in a search for alternatives that contribute to reducing potentially adverse environmental
externalities (Buschmann et al. 2009).
From a production efficiency perspective, in terms of use of the environment for aquaculture
activities, it has been calculated that the area required to obtain all the resources necessary to maintain
the productive cycle and, furthermore, to assimilate waste material produced—the “ecological footprint”
—ranges from values of around 4–5 Hectares per cultivated hectare, to values as high as 50,000 hectares
for each cultured hectare (Folke et al. 1998). This variability depends, principally, on the culture methods
used and the species cultured. Thus, in general, carnivorous organisms have a greater ecological footprint,
by one or two orders of magnitude, than extractive organisms (filterers and algae), which do not require an
exogenous energetic supplement in the environment (Folke and Kautsky 1989; Folke et al. 1998). Based
on this information, installation of waste recycling systems in aquaculture sites, that is, using different
types of organisms that remove these harmful elements from the ecosystem has been proposed (Troell
et al. 1999; Buschmann et al. 2008a; Chopin et al. 2008). These integrated aquaculture systems, using
multiple species with different trophic levels, are referred to as Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture
(IMTA) (Chopin et al. 2001). Nevertheless, as will be mentioned later in this study, a critical evaluation
is necessary as to why these systems have not been developed in Chile, in spite of the significant levels of
aquaculture development reached over the past few decades (Buschmann et al. 2009).
Given this environmental context, this study outlines the function of algal cultures as organisms
that extract inorganic elements, such as carbon, phosphor, and nitrogen, thus favoring coastal ecosystem
health. At present, certain coastal eutrophication processes are related to the appearance of algal blooms,
both of micro and macroalgae, constituting one of the biggest environmental problems affecting coastal
zones globally (Clarke et al. 2006; Conley et al. 2009). Eutrophication is directly associated with emissions
of inorganic elements, such as nitrogen compounds (nitrate and ammonium), and these compounds
originate from urban waste, agricultural activities, and deforestation, and reach coastal zones transported
by fresh water bodies, in addition to those produced by the aquaculture activity itself (Anderson et al.
2002; Buschmann et al. 2006a; Liu et al. 2012). In this study, we present an analysis of aquaculture
development, emphasizing the recent developments in Chile, especially associated to advantages and
restrictions of the incorporation of algae generating new business opportunities, while ensuring a more
sustainable aquaculture by minimizing the effects produced by an excess of inorganic nutrients in coastal
zones. The results of previously published studies have provided an exhaustive account of progress made
and future challenges of algal culture in Chile, and, as a result, this line of discussion is not included in
this study (see revision Buschmann et al. 2008b).
Recent aquaculture development in Chile
Marine aquaculture increased in Chile from a total production of 361,000 t in 1998 to over 870,000 t
throughout 2010 (Buschmann et al. 2013). Globally, this situated Chile among the 10 largest producers
and as the number one producer of marine aquaculture in the western hemisphere. During the same
period, salmon culture became the principal aquaculture activity in Chile, reaching peak production levels
of 630.647 t in 2006, subsequently experiencing a decline (Buschmann et al. 2013) as a result of the ISA
virus (Godoy et al. 2008). The combined total of mollusk production (mainly abalones, mussels, scallops,
and oysters), reached 212,210 t in 2010, the main product being muss mussels (Buschmann et al. 2013).
In the case of the exploited algal species (Fig. 1), have been increasing in time specially for different
brown algae reaching above 272,000 and 313,000 t in 2010 and 2011 respectively (Table 1). Red algae
reached an exploitation value of 104,000 t in 2011 (Table 1). During the last few years, commercial
production of microalgae is developing with a total biomass production of over 400,000 t (Table 1).
Farmed algal statistics for 2001 showed that only Gracilaria chilensis C. J. Bird, J. McLachlan, &
E.C. Oliveira was cultivated in Chile, but in 2010 statistics indicated that in addition microalgae and the
brown alga Macrocystis pyrifera (L.) C. Agardh are adding some biomass to the total algal farming in the
country (Table 2; Fig. 2). Overall, this algal biomass contributes to the production of agar, carrageenan,