Microalgal Metabolism and their Utilisation 55
Conclusion
In order to develop a reliable and highly productive large-scale culture process for microalgae and high
value products from microalgae, a good understanding of algal physiology and metabolism is essential.
This is important in the process of strain selection and also in the optimisation of culture conditions
and for culture management. Recent new developments in genome scale metabolic reconstruction and
metabolic flux analysis (Boyle and Morgan 2009; Chang et al. 2011; de Oliveira Dal’Molin et al. 2011)
and analysis of gene expression (e.g., Lei et al. 2012; Valenzuela et al. 2012) are providing new tools for
analysing the complex metabolic interactions in algae and should aid in the optimisation of cultures for
the production of specific products of interest as well as in developing genetic engineering strategies to
improve algae strains.
References
Aach, H.G. 1952. Über Wachstum und Zusammensetzung von Chlorella pyrenoidosa bei unterschiedlichen Lichtstärken und
Nitratmengen. Arch. Mikrobiol. 17: 213–246.
Abeliovich, A. and Y. Azov. 1976. Toxicity of ammonia to algae in sewage oxidation ponds. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 31:
801–806.
Arad, S.M., Y.B. Lerental and O. Dubinsky. 1992. Effect of nitrate and sulfate starvation on polysaccharide formation in
Rhodella reticulata. Bioresour. Technol. 42: 141–148.
Arisz, S.A., J.A.J. van Himbergen, A. Musgrave, H. van den Ende and T. Munnik. 2000. Polar glycerolipids of Chlamydomonas
moewusii. Phytochemistry 53: 265–270.
Banse, K. 1976. Rates of growth, respiration and photosynthesis of unicellular algae as related to cell size—a review. J.
Phycol. 12: 135–140.
Barclay, W., C. Weaver and J. Metz. 2005. Development of docosahexaenoic acid production technology using Schizochytrium:
A historical perspective. pp. 36–52. In: Z. Cohen and C. Ratledge (eds.). Single Cell Oils. AOCS Press, Urbana.
Barclay, W., C. Weaver, J. Metz and J. Hansen. 2010. Development of docosahexaenoic acid production technology using
Schizochytrium: Historical perspective and update. pp. 75–96. In: Z. Cohen and C. Ratledge (eds.). Single Cell Oils.
Microbial and Algal Oils. AOCS Press, Urbana.
Barclay, W.R., K.M. Meager and J.R. Abril. 1994. Heterotrophic production of long chain omega-3 fatty acids utilizing algae
and algae-like microorganisms. J. Appl. Phycol. 6: 123–129.
Beardall, J. and J.A. Raven. 2016. Carbon acquisition by microalgae. pp. 89–99. In: M.A. Borowitzka, J. Beardall and
J.A. Raven (eds.). The Physiology of Microalgae. Springer, Dordrecht.
Behrenfeld, M.J., O. Prasil, M. Babin and F. Bruyant. 2004. In search of a physiological basis for covariations in light-limited
and light-saturated photosynthesis. J. Phycol. 40: 4–25.
Belay, A. and G.E. Fogg. 1978. Photoinhibition of photosynthesis in Asterionella formosa (Bacillariophyceae). J. Phycol.
14: 341–347.
Belay, A. 1997. Mass culture of Spirulina outdoors—The Earthrise Farms experience. pp. 131–158 In: A. Vonshak (ed.).
Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira): Physiology, Cell-Biology and Biochemistry. Taylor & Francis, London.
Ben-Amotz, A., A. Katz and M. Avron. 1982. Accumulation of ß-carotene in halotolerant algae: purification and characterisation
of ß-carotene-rich globules from Dunaliella barwdawil. J. Phycol. 18: 529–537.
Ben-Amotz, A. and M. Avron. 1983. On those factors which determine the massive ß-carotene accumulation in the halotolerant
alga Dunaliella bardawil. Plant Physiology 72: 593–597.
Ben-Amotz, A., A. Lers and M. Avron. 1988. Stereoisomers of ß-carotene and phytoene in the alga Dunaliella bardawil.
Plant Physiol. 86: 1286–1291.
Benemann, J.R. 1989. The future of microalgal biotechnology. pp. 317–337. In: R.C. Cresswell, T.A.V. Rees and M. Shah
(eds.). Algal and Cyanobacterial Biotechnology. Longman Scientific & Technical, Harlow.
Benemann, J.R. and W.J. Oswald. 1996. Systems and economic analysis of microalgae ponds for conversion of CO 2 to biomass.
Final report US DOE. Pittsburgh, USA.
Bhatti, S. and B. Colman. 2008. Inorganic carbon acquisition in some synurophyte algae. Physiol. Plant 133: 33–40.
Bigogno, C., I. Khozin-Goldberg, S. Boussiba, A. Vonshak and Z. Cohen. 2002. Lipid and fatty acid composition of the
green oleaginous alga Parietochloris incisa, the richest plant source of arachidonic acid. Phytochemistry 60: 497–503.
Björkman, O. and B. Demmig-Adams. 1995. Regulation of photosynthetic light energy capture, conversion, and dissipation
in leaves of higher plants. pp. 17–47. In: E.-D. Schulze and M.M. Caldwell (eds.). Ecophysiology of Photosynthesis.
Springer, Berlin.
Booth, W.A. and J. Beardall. 1991. Effects of salinity on inorganic carbon utilization and carbonic anhydrase activity in the
halotolerant alga Dunaliella salina (Chlorophyta). Phycologia 30: 220–225.
Borowitzka, L.J. and M.A. Borowitzka. 1989. ß-Carotene (Provitamin A) production with algae. pp. 15–26. In: E.J. Vandamme
(ed.). Biotechnology of Vitamins, Pigments and Growth Factors. Elsevier Applied Science, London.
Conclusion
In order to develop a reliable and highly productive large-scale culture process for microalgae and high
value products from microalgae, a good understanding of algal physiology and metabolism is essential.
This is important in the process of strain selection and also in the optimisation of culture conditions
and for culture management. Recent new developments in genome scale metabolic reconstruction and
metabolic flux analysis (Boyle and Morgan 2009; Chang et al. 2011; de Oliveira Dal’Molin et al. 2011)
and analysis of gene expression (e.g., Lei et al. 2012; Valenzuela et al. 2012) are providing new tools for
analysing the complex metabolic interactions in algae and should aid in the optimisation of cultures for
the production of specific products of interest as well as in developing genetic engineering strategies to
improve algae strains.
References
Aach, H.G. 1952. Über Wachstum und Zusammensetzung von Chlorella pyrenoidosa bei unterschiedlichen Lichtstärken und
Nitratmengen. Arch. Mikrobiol. 17: 213–246.
Abeliovich, A. and Y. Azov. 1976. Toxicity of ammonia to algae in sewage oxidation ponds. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 31:
801–806.
Arad, S.M., Y.B. Lerental and O. Dubinsky. 1992. Effect of nitrate and sulfate starvation on polysaccharide formation in
Rhodella reticulata. Bioresour. Technol. 42: 141–148.
Arisz, S.A., J.A.J. van Himbergen, A. Musgrave, H. van den Ende and T. Munnik. 2000. Polar glycerolipids of Chlamydomonas
moewusii. Phytochemistry 53: 265–270.
Banse, K. 1976. Rates of growth, respiration and photosynthesis of unicellular algae as related to cell size—a review. J.
Phycol. 12: 135–140.
Barclay, W., C. Weaver and J. Metz. 2005. Development of docosahexaenoic acid production technology using Schizochytrium:
A historical perspective. pp. 36–52. In: Z. Cohen and C. Ratledge (eds.). Single Cell Oils. AOCS Press, Urbana.
Barclay, W., C. Weaver, J. Metz and J. Hansen. 2010. Development of docosahexaenoic acid production technology using
Schizochytrium: Historical perspective and update. pp. 75–96. In: Z. Cohen and C. Ratledge (eds.). Single Cell Oils.
Microbial and Algal Oils. AOCS Press, Urbana.
Barclay, W.R., K.M. Meager and J.R. Abril. 1994. Heterotrophic production of long chain omega-3 fatty acids utilizing algae
and algae-like microorganisms. J. Appl. Phycol. 6: 123–129.
Beardall, J. and J.A. Raven. 2016. Carbon acquisition by microalgae. pp. 89–99. In: M.A. Borowitzka, J. Beardall and
J.A. Raven (eds.). The Physiology of Microalgae. Springer, Dordrecht.
Behrenfeld, M.J., O. Prasil, M. Babin and F. Bruyant. 2004. In search of a physiological basis for covariations in light-limited
and light-saturated photosynthesis. J. Phycol. 40: 4–25.
Belay, A. and G.E. Fogg. 1978. Photoinhibition of photosynthesis in Asterionella formosa (Bacillariophyceae). J. Phycol.
14: 341–347.
Belay, A. 1997. Mass culture of Spirulina outdoors—The Earthrise Farms experience. pp. 131–158 In: A. Vonshak (ed.).
Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira): Physiology, Cell-Biology and Biochemistry. Taylor & Francis, London.
Ben-Amotz, A., A. Katz and M. Avron. 1982. Accumulation of ß-carotene in halotolerant algae: purification and characterisation
of ß-carotene-rich globules from Dunaliella barwdawil. J. Phycol. 18: 529–537.
Ben-Amotz, A. and M. Avron. 1983. On those factors which determine the massive ß-carotene accumulation in the halotolerant
alga Dunaliella bardawil. Plant Physiology 72: 593–597.
Ben-Amotz, A., A. Lers and M. Avron. 1988. Stereoisomers of ß-carotene and phytoene in the alga Dunaliella bardawil.
Plant Physiol. 86: 1286–1291.
Benemann, J.R. 1989. The future of microalgal biotechnology. pp. 317–337. In: R.C. Cresswell, T.A.V. Rees and M. Shah
(eds.). Algal and Cyanobacterial Biotechnology. Longman Scientific & Technical, Harlow.
Benemann, J.R. and W.J. Oswald. 1996. Systems and economic analysis of microalgae ponds for conversion of CO 2 to biomass.
Final report US DOE. Pittsburgh, USA.
Bhatti, S. and B. Colman. 2008. Inorganic carbon acquisition in some synurophyte algae. Physiol. Plant 133: 33–40.
Bigogno, C., I. Khozin-Goldberg, S. Boussiba, A. Vonshak and Z. Cohen. 2002. Lipid and fatty acid composition of the
green oleaginous alga Parietochloris incisa, the richest plant source of arachidonic acid. Phytochemistry 60: 497–503.
Björkman, O. and B. Demmig-Adams. 1995. Regulation of photosynthetic light energy capture, conversion, and dissipation
in leaves of higher plants. pp. 17–47. In: E.-D. Schulze and M.M. Caldwell (eds.). Ecophysiology of Photosynthesis.
Springer, Berlin.
Booth, W.A. and J. Beardall. 1991. Effects of salinity on inorganic carbon utilization and carbonic anhydrase activity in the
halotolerant alga Dunaliella salina (Chlorophyta). Phycologia 30: 220–225.
Borowitzka, L.J. and M.A. Borowitzka. 1989. ß-Carotene (Provitamin A) production with algae. pp. 15–26. In: E.J. Vandamme
(ed.). Biotechnology of Vitamins, Pigments and Growth Factors. Elsevier Applied Science, London.