16 Marine Macro- and Microalgae: An Overview
metabolites and their manifestation varies according to the geographical area. They also concluded that
algae in tropical areas produce a greater variety of natural products, particularly terpenoids, as a defensive
response against the higher effect of herbivory in those systems.
Natural algae products have also been related to the success of invasive species, allowing them
to colonize and establish populations in areas far away from their area of origin (Liu and Pang 2010).
Caulerpa taxifolia, for example, a species with known colonization success, produces a sesquiterpene
which makes it inedible by sea urchins and toxic to fish (Uchimura et al. 1999). Also, the stronger
chemical antifouling properties and competitiveness of Sargassum spp. compared to, for example,
F. vesiculosus, might contribute to the invasion success of S. muticum (Schwartz et al. 2017).
Research on the applications of algae secondary metabolites is intense and has resulted in the isolation
of numerous active compounds important for pharmaceutical uses such as antimicrobials, antivirals,
antitumor and cytotoxics, hemagglutinating, and antioxidants. Hundreds of articles are published and
patents are granted each year (see revision in, e.g., Blunt et al. 2011; Guedes et al. 2011). On a more
personal level, several researchers recommend the integration of edible seaweed in the human diet as a
way to prevent and even fight disease (Aguilera-Morales et al. 2005; Li et al. 2011; Mohamed et al. 2012).
Acknowledgements
This chapter was partially funded by Project NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000035-INNOVMAR –
Innovation and Sustainability in the Management and Exploitation of Marine Resources, namely in
research line ECOSERVICES – Assessing the environmental quality, vulnerability and risks for the
sustainable management of NW coast natural resources and ecosystem services in a changing world,
supported by the Northern Regional Operational Programme (NORTE2020), through the European
Regional Development Fund (ERDF).
References
Aguilera-Morales, M., M. Casas-Valdez, B. Carrillo-Dominguez, B. Gonzalez-Acosta and F. Pérez-Gil. 2005. Chemical
composition and microbiological assays of marine algae Enteromorpha spp. as a potential food source. J. Food Compos.
Anal. 18: 79–88.
Amsler, C.D., J. McClintock and B.J. Baker. 2009. Macroalgal chemical defenses in polar marine communities. pp. 91–104.
In: C.D. Amsler (ed.). Algal Chemical Ecology. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Armstrong E., L.M. Yan, K.G. Boyd, P.C. Wright and J.G. Burgess. 2001. The symbiotic role of marine microbes on living
surfaces. Hydrobiologia 461: 37–40.
Araújo, R.M., J. Assis, R. Aguillar, L. Airoldi, I. Bárbara, I. Bartsch, T. Bekkby, H. Christie, D. Davoult, S. Derrien-Courtel,
C. Fernandez, S. Fredriksen, F. Gevaert, H. Gundersen, A. Le Gal, L. Lévêque, N. Mieszkowska, K.M. Norderhaug, P.
Oliveira, A. Puente, J.M. Rico, E. Rinde, H. Schubert, E.M. Strain, M. Valero, F. Viard and I. Sousa-Pinto. 2016. Status,
trends and drivers of kelp forests in Europe: an expert assessment. Biodivers Conserv. 25: 1319–1348.
Barsanti L. and P. Gualtieri. 2014. Algae-Anatomy, Biochemistry and Biotechnology. CRC Press, Boca Raton. 361 pp.
Bertocci, I., R. Araújo, P. Oliveira and I. Sousa-Pinto. 2015. Review: Potential effects of kelp species on local fisheries. J.
Appl. Ecology 52: 1216–1226.
Bertrand, E.M., J.P. McCrow, A. Moustafa, H. Zheng, J.B. McQuaid, T.O. Delmont and A.E. Allen. 2015. Phytoplankton–
bacterial interactions mediate micronutrient colimitation at the coastal Antarctic sea ice edge. P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
112: 9938–9943.
Bischof, K., I. Gómez, M. Molis, D. Hanelt, U. Karsten, U. Lüder, M.Y. Roleda, K. Zacher and C. Wiencke. 2006. Ultraviolet
radiation shapes seaweed communities. Rev. Environ. Sci. Bio. 5: 141–166.
Blunt, J.W., B.R. Copp, M.H.G. Munro, P.T. Northcote and M.R. Prinsep. 2011. Marine natural products. Nat. Prod. Rep.
28: 196–268.
Bold, H.C. and M.J. Wynne. 1985. Introduction to the Algae: Structure and Reproduction. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, 720 pp.
Brodie, J., S.G. Ball, F.-Y. Bouget, C.X. Chan, O. De Clerck, J.M. Cock, C. Gachon, A.R. Grossman, T. Mock, J.A. Raven,
M. Saha, A.G. Smith, A. Vardi, H.S. Yoon and D. Bhattacharya. 2017. Biotic interactions as drivers of algal origin and
evolution. New Phytol. 216: 670–681.
Cavalier-Smith, T. 2004. Only six kingdoms of life. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 271: 1251–1262.
Charpy, L., B.E. Casareto, M.J. Langlade and Y. Suzuki. 2012. Cyanobacteria in coral reef ecosystems: a review. J. Mar.
Biol., Article ID 259571.
metabolites and their manifestation varies according to the geographical area. They also concluded that
algae in tropical areas produce a greater variety of natural products, particularly terpenoids, as a defensive
response against the higher effect of herbivory in those systems.
Natural algae products have also been related to the success of invasive species, allowing them
to colonize and establish populations in areas far away from their area of origin (Liu and Pang 2010).
Caulerpa taxifolia, for example, a species with known colonization success, produces a sesquiterpene
which makes it inedible by sea urchins and toxic to fish (Uchimura et al. 1999). Also, the stronger
chemical antifouling properties and competitiveness of Sargassum spp. compared to, for example,
F. vesiculosus, might contribute to the invasion success of S. muticum (Schwartz et al. 2017).
Research on the applications of algae secondary metabolites is intense and has resulted in the isolation
of numerous active compounds important for pharmaceutical uses such as antimicrobials, antivirals,
antitumor and cytotoxics, hemagglutinating, and antioxidants. Hundreds of articles are published and
patents are granted each year (see revision in, e.g., Blunt et al. 2011; Guedes et al. 2011). On a more
personal level, several researchers recommend the integration of edible seaweed in the human diet as a
way to prevent and even fight disease (Aguilera-Morales et al. 2005; Li et al. 2011; Mohamed et al. 2012).
Acknowledgements
This chapter was partially funded by Project NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000035-INNOVMAR –
Innovation and Sustainability in the Management and Exploitation of Marine Resources, namely in
research line ECOSERVICES – Assessing the environmental quality, vulnerability and risks for the
sustainable management of NW coast natural resources and ecosystem services in a changing world,
supported by the Northern Regional Operational Programme (NORTE2020), through the European
Regional Development Fund (ERDF).
References
Aguilera-Morales, M., M. Casas-Valdez, B. Carrillo-Dominguez, B. Gonzalez-Acosta and F. Pérez-Gil. 2005. Chemical
composition and microbiological assays of marine algae Enteromorpha spp. as a potential food source. J. Food Compos.
Anal. 18: 79–88.
Amsler, C.D., J. McClintock and B.J. Baker. 2009. Macroalgal chemical defenses in polar marine communities. pp. 91–104.
In: C.D. Amsler (ed.). Algal Chemical Ecology. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Armstrong E., L.M. Yan, K.G. Boyd, P.C. Wright and J.G. Burgess. 2001. The symbiotic role of marine microbes on living
surfaces. Hydrobiologia 461: 37–40.
Araújo, R.M., J. Assis, R. Aguillar, L. Airoldi, I. Bárbara, I. Bartsch, T. Bekkby, H. Christie, D. Davoult, S. Derrien-Courtel,
C. Fernandez, S. Fredriksen, F. Gevaert, H. Gundersen, A. Le Gal, L. Lévêque, N. Mieszkowska, K.M. Norderhaug, P.
Oliveira, A. Puente, J.M. Rico, E. Rinde, H. Schubert, E.M. Strain, M. Valero, F. Viard and I. Sousa-Pinto. 2016. Status,
trends and drivers of kelp forests in Europe: an expert assessment. Biodivers Conserv. 25: 1319–1348.
Barsanti L. and P. Gualtieri. 2014. Algae-Anatomy, Biochemistry and Biotechnology. CRC Press, Boca Raton. 361 pp.
Bertocci, I., R. Araújo, P. Oliveira and I. Sousa-Pinto. 2015. Review: Potential effects of kelp species on local fisheries. J.
Appl. Ecology 52: 1216–1226.
Bertrand, E.M., J.P. McCrow, A. Moustafa, H. Zheng, J.B. McQuaid, T.O. Delmont and A.E. Allen. 2015. Phytoplankton–
bacterial interactions mediate micronutrient colimitation at the coastal Antarctic sea ice edge. P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
112: 9938–9943.
Bischof, K., I. Gómez, M. Molis, D. Hanelt, U. Karsten, U. Lüder, M.Y. Roleda, K. Zacher and C. Wiencke. 2006. Ultraviolet
radiation shapes seaweed communities. Rev. Environ. Sci. Bio. 5: 141–166.
Blunt, J.W., B.R. Copp, M.H.G. Munro, P.T. Northcote and M.R. Prinsep. 2011. Marine natural products. Nat. Prod. Rep.
28: 196–268.
Bold, H.C. and M.J. Wynne. 1985. Introduction to the Algae: Structure and Reproduction. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, 720 pp.
Brodie, J., S.G. Ball, F.-Y. Bouget, C.X. Chan, O. De Clerck, J.M. Cock, C. Gachon, A.R. Grossman, T. Mock, J.A. Raven,
M. Saha, A.G. Smith, A. Vardi, H.S. Yoon and D. Bhattacharya. 2017. Biotic interactions as drivers of algal origin and
evolution. New Phytol. 216: 670–681.
Cavalier-Smith, T. 2004. Only six kingdoms of life. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 271: 1251–1262.
Charpy, L., B.E. Casareto, M.J. Langlade and Y. Suzuki. 2012. Cyanobacteria in coral reef ecosystems: a review. J. Mar.
Biol., Article ID 259571.