Dinoflagellates and Toxin Production 233
Schnepf, E. and M. Elbrächter. 1992. Nutritional strategies in dinoflagellates: a review with emphasis on cell biological
aspects. Eur. J. Protistol. 28: 3–24.
Scholin, C.A., F. Gulland, G.J. Doucette, S. Benson, M. Busman, F.P. Chavez, J. Cordaro, R. DeLong, A. De Vogelaere,
J. Harvey, M. Haulena, K. Lefebvre, T. Lipscomb, S. Loscutoff, L.J. Lowenstine, R. Marin, P.E. Miller, W.A. McLellan,
P.D.R. Moeller, C.L. Powell, T. Rowles, P. Silvagni, M. Silver, T. Spraker, V. Trainer and F.M.V. Dolah. Mortality of sea
lions along the central California coast linked to a toxic diatom bloom. Nature 403: 80–84.
Schweikert, M. and B. Meyer. 2001. Characterization of intracellular bacteria in the freshwater dinoflagellate Peridinium
cinctum. Protoplasma 217: 177–184.
Sheng, J., E. Malkiel, J. Katz, J.E. Adolf and A.R. Place. 2010. A dinoflagellate exploits toxins to immobilize prey prior to
ingestion. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 107: 2082–2087.
Silva, E.S. 1990. Intracellular bacteria: the origin of dinoflagellate toxicity. J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. Oncol. 10: 124–128.
Smayda, T.J. 1997. What is a bloom? A commentary. Limnol. Ocean. 42: 1132–1136.
Smayda, T.J. 2010. Adaptations and selection of harmful and other dinoflagellate species in upwelling systems. 2. Motility
and migratory behaviour. Prog. Oceanogr. 85: 71–91.
Speckhard, A. 2010. Evolution of the Dinoflagellates: from the origin of the group to thir genes. ICHA14 Conference
Proceedings. Crete. 12–20.
Spector, D.L. 1984. Dinoflagellates: an introduction. pp. 1–15. In: D.L. Spector (ed.). Dinoflagellates. Academic Press, Orlando.
Steidinger, K.A. and D.G. Baden. 1984. Toxic Marine Dinoflagellates. pp. 201–248. In: D.L. Spector (ed.). Dinoflagellates.
Academic Press, Oxford.
Sullivan, J.M., E. Swift, P.L. Donaghay and J.E. Rines. 2003. Small-scale turbulence affects the division rate and morphology
of two red-tide dinoflagellates. Harmful Algae 2: 183–199.
Tang, E.P.Y. 1996. Why do dinoflagellates have lower growth rates? J. Phycol. 32: 80–84.
Taroncher-Oldenburg, G., D.M. Kulis and D.M. Anderson. 1997. Toxin variability during the cell cycle of the dinoflagellate
Alexandrium fundyense. Limnol. Oceanogr. 42: 1178–1188.
Taylor, F.J.R. 1980. On dinoflagellate evolution. Biosystems 13: 65–108.
Taylor, F.J.R. 1987. The Biology of Dinoflagellates. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
Taylor, F.J.R., M. Hoppenrath and J.F. Saldarriaga. 2008. Dinoflagellate diversity and distribution. Biodivers. Conserv. 17:
407–418.
Tillmann, U., M. Elbrächter, B. Krock, U. John and A.D. Cembella. 2009. Azadinium spinosum gen. et sp. nov. (Dinophyceae)
identified as a primary producer of azaspiracid toxins. Eur. J. Phycol. 44: 63–79.
Tobío, A., A. Alfonso, I. Madera-Salcedo, L.M. Botana and U. Blank. 2016. Yessotoxin, a marine toxin, exhibits anti-allergic
and anti-tumoural activities inhibiting melanoma tumour growth in a preclinical model. PLoS One 11: 1–14.
Tredici, M.R., P. Carlozzi, G. Chini Zittelli and R. Materassi. 1991. A vertical alveolar panel (VAP) for outdoor mass cultivation
of microalgae and cyanobacteria. Bioresour. Technol. 38: 153–159.
Tsukano, C. and M. Sasaki. 2006. Structure-activity relationship studies of gymnocin-A. Tetrahedron Lett. 47: 6803–6807.
Twiner, M.J., J.C. Ryan, J.S. Morey, K.J. Smith, S.M. Hammad, F.M. Van Dolah, P. Hess, T. McMahon, M. Satake, T. Yasumoto
and G.J. Doucette. 2008. Transcriptional profiling and inhibition of cholesterol biosynthesis in human T lymphocyte
cells by the marine toxin azaspiracid. Genomics 91: 289–300.
Valdiglesias, V., M.V. Prego-Faraldo, E. Paśaro, J. Meńdez and B. Laffon. 2013. Okadaic acid: more than a diarrheic toxin.
Mar. Drugs 11: 4328–4349.
Varley, J. and J. Birch. 1999. Reactor design for large scale suspension animal cell culture. Cytotechnology 29: 177–205.
Waller, R.F. and C.J. Jackson. 2009. Dinoflagellate mitochondrial genomes: Stretching the rules of molecular biology.
BioEssays 31: 237–245.
Wang, D.Z. 2008. Neurotoxins from marine dinoflagellates: a brief review. Mar. Drugs 6: 349–371.
Wang, D.Z., A.Y.T. Ho and D.P.H. Hsieh. 2002. Production of C2 toxin by Alexandrium tamarense CI01 using different culture
methods. J. Appl. Phycol. 14(6): 461–468.
Wang, D.Z., S.F. Zhang, Y. Zhang and L. Lin. 2016. Paralytic shellfish toxin biosynthesis in cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates:
A molecular overview. J. Proteomics 135: 132–140.
Wang, S., J. Chen, Z. Li, Y. Wang, B. Fu, X. Han and L. Zheng. 2015. Cultivation of the benthic microalga Prorocentrum
lima for the production of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning toxins in a vertical flat photobioreactor. Bioresour. Technol.
179: 243–248.
Waters, A.L., R.T. Hill, A.R. Place and M.T. Hamann. 2011. The expanding role of marine microbes in pharmaceutical. Curr.
Opin. Biotechnol. 21: 780–786.
Wells, M.L., V.L. Trainer, T.J. Smayda, B.S. Karlson, C.G. Trick, R.M. Kudela, A. Ishikawa, S. Bernard, A. Wulff,
D.M. Anderson and W.P. Cochlan. 2015. Harmful algal blooms and climate change: Learning from the past and present
to forecast the future. Harmful Algae 49: 68–93.
White, A.W. 1976. Growth inhibition caused by turbulence in the toxic marine dinoflagellate Gonyaulax excavata. J. Fish.
Res. Board Canada 33: 2598–2602.
Wisecaver, J.H. and J.D. Hackett. 2011. Dinoflagellate genome evolution. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 65: 369–387.
Wong, J.T. and A.C. Kwok. 2005. Proliferation of dinoflagellates: blooming or bleaching. BioEssays. 27: 730–740.
Wynn, J., P. Behrens, A. Sundararajan, J. Hansen and K. Apt. 2010. Production of single cell oils by dinoflagellates.
pp. 115–129. In: Z. Cohen and R. Colin (eds.). Single Cell Oils (2nd Ed.). AOCS Press, Illinois.
Schnepf, E. and M. Elbrächter. 1992. Nutritional strategies in dinoflagellates: a review with emphasis on cell biological
aspects. Eur. J. Protistol. 28: 3–24.
Scholin, C.A., F. Gulland, G.J. Doucette, S. Benson, M. Busman, F.P. Chavez, J. Cordaro, R. DeLong, A. De Vogelaere,
J. Harvey, M. Haulena, K. Lefebvre, T. Lipscomb, S. Loscutoff, L.J. Lowenstine, R. Marin, P.E. Miller, W.A. McLellan,
P.D.R. Moeller, C.L. Powell, T. Rowles, P. Silvagni, M. Silver, T. Spraker, V. Trainer and F.M.V. Dolah. Mortality of sea
lions along the central California coast linked to a toxic diatom bloom. Nature 403: 80–84.
Schweikert, M. and B. Meyer. 2001. Characterization of intracellular bacteria in the freshwater dinoflagellate Peridinium
cinctum. Protoplasma 217: 177–184.
Sheng, J., E. Malkiel, J. Katz, J.E. Adolf and A.R. Place. 2010. A dinoflagellate exploits toxins to immobilize prey prior to
ingestion. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 107: 2082–2087.
Silva, E.S. 1990. Intracellular bacteria: the origin of dinoflagellate toxicity. J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. Oncol. 10: 124–128.
Smayda, T.J. 1997. What is a bloom? A commentary. Limnol. Ocean. 42: 1132–1136.
Smayda, T.J. 2010. Adaptations and selection of harmful and other dinoflagellate species in upwelling systems. 2. Motility
and migratory behaviour. Prog. Oceanogr. 85: 71–91.
Speckhard, A. 2010. Evolution of the Dinoflagellates: from the origin of the group to thir genes. ICHA14 Conference
Proceedings. Crete. 12–20.
Spector, D.L. 1984. Dinoflagellates: an introduction. pp. 1–15. In: D.L. Spector (ed.). Dinoflagellates. Academic Press, Orlando.
Steidinger, K.A. and D.G. Baden. 1984. Toxic Marine Dinoflagellates. pp. 201–248. In: D.L. Spector (ed.). Dinoflagellates.
Academic Press, Oxford.
Sullivan, J.M., E. Swift, P.L. Donaghay and J.E. Rines. 2003. Small-scale turbulence affects the division rate and morphology
of two red-tide dinoflagellates. Harmful Algae 2: 183–199.
Tang, E.P.Y. 1996. Why do dinoflagellates have lower growth rates? J. Phycol. 32: 80–84.
Taroncher-Oldenburg, G., D.M. Kulis and D.M. Anderson. 1997. Toxin variability during the cell cycle of the dinoflagellate
Alexandrium fundyense. Limnol. Oceanogr. 42: 1178–1188.
Taylor, F.J.R. 1980. On dinoflagellate evolution. Biosystems 13: 65–108.
Taylor, F.J.R. 1987. The Biology of Dinoflagellates. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
Taylor, F.J.R., M. Hoppenrath and J.F. Saldarriaga. 2008. Dinoflagellate diversity and distribution. Biodivers. Conserv. 17:
407–418.
Tillmann, U., M. Elbrächter, B. Krock, U. John and A.D. Cembella. 2009. Azadinium spinosum gen. et sp. nov. (Dinophyceae)
identified as a primary producer of azaspiracid toxins. Eur. J. Phycol. 44: 63–79.
Tobío, A., A. Alfonso, I. Madera-Salcedo, L.M. Botana and U. Blank. 2016. Yessotoxin, a marine toxin, exhibits anti-allergic
and anti-tumoural activities inhibiting melanoma tumour growth in a preclinical model. PLoS One 11: 1–14.
Tredici, M.R., P. Carlozzi, G. Chini Zittelli and R. Materassi. 1991. A vertical alveolar panel (VAP) for outdoor mass cultivation
of microalgae and cyanobacteria. Bioresour. Technol. 38: 153–159.
Tsukano, C. and M. Sasaki. 2006. Structure-activity relationship studies of gymnocin-A. Tetrahedron Lett. 47: 6803–6807.
Twiner, M.J., J.C. Ryan, J.S. Morey, K.J. Smith, S.M. Hammad, F.M. Van Dolah, P. Hess, T. McMahon, M. Satake, T. Yasumoto
and G.J. Doucette. 2008. Transcriptional profiling and inhibition of cholesterol biosynthesis in human T lymphocyte
cells by the marine toxin azaspiracid. Genomics 91: 289–300.
Valdiglesias, V., M.V. Prego-Faraldo, E. Paśaro, J. Meńdez and B. Laffon. 2013. Okadaic acid: more than a diarrheic toxin.
Mar. Drugs 11: 4328–4349.
Varley, J. and J. Birch. 1999. Reactor design for large scale suspension animal cell culture. Cytotechnology 29: 177–205.
Waller, R.F. and C.J. Jackson. 2009. Dinoflagellate mitochondrial genomes: Stretching the rules of molecular biology.
BioEssays 31: 237–245.
Wang, D.Z. 2008. Neurotoxins from marine dinoflagellates: a brief review. Mar. Drugs 6: 349–371.
Wang, D.Z., A.Y.T. Ho and D.P.H. Hsieh. 2002. Production of C2 toxin by Alexandrium tamarense CI01 using different culture
methods. J. Appl. Phycol. 14(6): 461–468.
Wang, D.Z., S.F. Zhang, Y. Zhang and L. Lin. 2016. Paralytic shellfish toxin biosynthesis in cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates:
A molecular overview. J. Proteomics 135: 132–140.
Wang, S., J. Chen, Z. Li, Y. Wang, B. Fu, X. Han and L. Zheng. 2015. Cultivation of the benthic microalga Prorocentrum
lima for the production of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning toxins in a vertical flat photobioreactor. Bioresour. Technol.
179: 243–248.
Waters, A.L., R.T. Hill, A.R. Place and M.T. Hamann. 2011. The expanding role of marine microbes in pharmaceutical. Curr.
Opin. Biotechnol. 21: 780–786.
Wells, M.L., V.L. Trainer, T.J. Smayda, B.S. Karlson, C.G. Trick, R.M. Kudela, A. Ishikawa, S. Bernard, A. Wulff,
D.M. Anderson and W.P. Cochlan. 2015. Harmful algal blooms and climate change: Learning from the past and present
to forecast the future. Harmful Algae 49: 68–93.
White, A.W. 1976. Growth inhibition caused by turbulence in the toxic marine dinoflagellate Gonyaulax excavata. J. Fish.
Res. Board Canada 33: 2598–2602.
Wisecaver, J.H. and J.D. Hackett. 2011. Dinoflagellate genome evolution. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 65: 369–387.
Wong, J.T. and A.C. Kwok. 2005. Proliferation of dinoflagellates: blooming or bleaching. BioEssays. 27: 730–740.
Wynn, J., P. Behrens, A. Sundararajan, J. Hansen and K. Apt. 2010. Production of single cell oils by dinoflagellates.
pp. 115–129. In: Z. Cohen and R. Colin (eds.). Single Cell Oils (2nd Ed.). AOCS Press, Illinois.