Dinoflagellates and Toxin Production 229
funds through FCT and project NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000005—LEPABE-2-ECO-INNOVATION,
supported by North Portugal Regional Operational Programme (NORTE 2020), under Portugal 2020
Partnership Agreement, through European Regional Development Fund (ERDF). Part of this work was
also supported by the COST Action ES1408 European network for algal-bioproducts (EUALGAE).
References
Abe, M., D. Inoue, K. Matsunaga, Y. Ohizumi, H. Ueda, T. Asano, M. Murakami and Y. Sato. 2002. Goniodomin A, an
antifungal polyether macrolide, exhibits antiangiogenic activities via inhibition of actin reorganization in endothelial
cells. J. Cell. Physiol. 190: 109–116.
Abraham, W.M., A.J. Bourdelais, J.R. Sabater, A. Ahmed, T.A. Lee, I. Serebriakov and D.G. Baden. 2005. Airway responses
to aerosolized brevetoxins in an animal model of asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 171: 26–34.
Adolf, J.E., T.R. Bachvaroff and A.R. Place. 2009. Environmental modulation of karlotoxin levels in strains of the cosmopolitan
dinoflagellate, Karlodinium veneficum (dinophyceae). J. Phycol. 45: 176–192.
Alam, S., D.B. Lovett, R.B. Dickinson, K.J. Roux and T.P. Lele. 2014. Nuclear forces and cell mechanosensing. Prog. Mol.
Biol. Transl. Sci. 126: 205–215.
Anderson, D.M. 1995. Toxic red tides and harmful algal blooms: a practical challenge in coastal oceanography. Rev. Geophys.
33: 1189–1200.
Beam, C.A. and M. Himes. 1984. Dinoflagellate genetics. pp. 5685–5697. In: D.L. Spector (ed.). Dinoflagellates. Academic
Press, Orlando.
Benstein, R.M., Z. Çebi, B. Podola and M. Melkonian. 2014. Immobilized growth of the peridinin-producing marine
dinoflagellate symbiodinium in a simple biofilm photobioreactor. Mar. Biotechnol. 16: 621–628.
Berdalet, E. 1992. Effects of turbulence on marine dinoflagellate Gymnodinium nelsonii. J. Phycol. 28: 267–272.
Berdalet, E., F. Peters, V.L. Koumandou, C. Roldán, Ò. Guadayol and M. Estrada. 2007. Species-specific physiological response
of dinoflagellates to quantified small-scale turbulence. J. Phycol. 43: 965–977.
Berde, C.B., U. Athiraman, B. Yahalom, D. Zurakowski, G. Corfas and C. Bognet. 2011. Tetrodotoxin-bupivacaine-epinephrine
combinations for prolonged local anesthesia. Mar. Drugs 9: 2717–2728.
Beuzenberg, V., D. Mountfort, P. Holland, F. Shi and L. Mackenzie. 2012. Optimization of growth and production of toxins
by three dinoflagellates in photobioreactor cultures. J. Appl. Phycol. 24: 1023–1033.
Blunt, J.W., B.R. Copp, R.A. Keyzers, M.H.G. Munro and M.R. Prinsep. 2016. Marine natural products. Nat. Prod. Rep.
33: 382–431.
Bomber, J.W., M.G. Rubio and D.R. Norris. 1989. Epiphytism of dinoflagellates associated with the disease ciguatera: substrate
specificity and nutrition. Phycologia 28: 360–368.
Bošnjaković, M. 2013. Biodiesel from algae. J. Mechan. Eng. and Autom. 3: 179–188.
Bralewska, J.M. and Z. Witek. 1995. Heterotrophic dinoflagellates in the ecosystem of the Gulf of Gdansk. Mar. Ecol. Prog.
Ser. 117: 241–248.
Bravo, I. and R. Figueroa. 2014. Towards an ecological understanding of dinoflagellate cyst functions. Microorganisms. 2:11–32
Cao, Z., K.T. LePage, M.O. Frederick, K.C. Nicolaou and T.F. Murray. 2010. Involvement of caspase activation in azaspiracidinduced neurotoxicity in neocortical neurons. Toxicol. Sci. 114: 323–334.
Carlson, R.D., G. Morey-Ganes, D.R. Tindall and R.W. Dickey. 1984. Ecology of toxic dinoflagellates from the caribbean
sea: Effects of macroalgal extracts on growth in culture. pp. 271–287. In: E.P. Ragelis (ed.). Seafood Toxins. American
Chemical Society, Washigton DC.
Carvalho, A.P., L.A. Meireles and F.X. Malcata. 2006. Microalgal reactors: a review of enclosed system designs and
performances. Biotechnol. Prog. 22: 1490–506.
Cavalier-Smith, T., Z. Zhang and B.R. Green. 1999. Single gene circles in dinoflagellate chloroplast genomes. Nature 400:
155–159.
Cembella, A.D. 2003. Chemical ecology of eukaryotic microalgae in marine ecosystems. Phycologia 42: 420–447.
Chae, H.D., T.S. Choi, B.M. Kim, J.H. Jung, Y.J. Bang and D.Y. Shin. 2005. Oocyte-based screening of cytokinesis inhibitors
and identification of pectenotoxin-2 that induces Bim/Bax-mediated apoptosis in p53-deficient tumors. Oncogene 24:
4813–4819.
Chen, A.K., M.I. Latz and J.A. Fringes. 2003. The use of dinoflagellate bioluminescence to characterize cell stimulation in
bioreactors. Biotechnology. Boeing. 83: 93–103.
China in, M., H.T. Darius, A. Dung, P. Crochet, Z. Wang, D. Pontoon, D. Laurent and S. Papilla. 2010. Growth and toxin
production in the ciguatera-causing dinoflagellate Gambier discus polynesiensis (Dinophyceae) in culture. Toxicon.
56: 739–750.
Chisti, Y. 2000. Animal-cell damage in sparged bioreactors. Trends Biotechnology 18: 420–432.
Coffroth, M. and S. Santos. 2005. Genetic diversity of symbiotic dinoflagellates in the genus Symbiodinium. Protist. 156: 19–34.
Daranas, A.H., M. Norte and J.J. Fernández. 2001. Toxic marine microalgae. Toxicon. 39: 1101–1132.
Doblin, M.A., P.A. Thompson, A.T. Revill, E.C. V. Butler, S.I. Blackburn and G.M. Hallegraeff. 2006. Vertical migration of
the toxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum under different concentrations of nutrients and humic substances in
culture. Harmful Algae 5: 665–677.
funds through FCT and project NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000005—LEPABE-2-ECO-INNOVATION,
supported by North Portugal Regional Operational Programme (NORTE 2020), under Portugal 2020
Partnership Agreement, through European Regional Development Fund (ERDF). Part of this work was
also supported by the COST Action ES1408 European network for algal-bioproducts (EUALGAE).
References
Abe, M., D. Inoue, K. Matsunaga, Y. Ohizumi, H. Ueda, T. Asano, M. Murakami and Y. Sato. 2002. Goniodomin A, an
antifungal polyether macrolide, exhibits antiangiogenic activities via inhibition of actin reorganization in endothelial
cells. J. Cell. Physiol. 190: 109–116.
Abraham, W.M., A.J. Bourdelais, J.R. Sabater, A. Ahmed, T.A. Lee, I. Serebriakov and D.G. Baden. 2005. Airway responses
to aerosolized brevetoxins in an animal model of asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 171: 26–34.
Adolf, J.E., T.R. Bachvaroff and A.R. Place. 2009. Environmental modulation of karlotoxin levels in strains of the cosmopolitan
dinoflagellate, Karlodinium veneficum (dinophyceae). J. Phycol. 45: 176–192.
Alam, S., D.B. Lovett, R.B. Dickinson, K.J. Roux and T.P. Lele. 2014. Nuclear forces and cell mechanosensing. Prog. Mol.
Biol. Transl. Sci. 126: 205–215.
Anderson, D.M. 1995. Toxic red tides and harmful algal blooms: a practical challenge in coastal oceanography. Rev. Geophys.
33: 1189–1200.
Beam, C.A. and M. Himes. 1984. Dinoflagellate genetics. pp. 5685–5697. In: D.L. Spector (ed.). Dinoflagellates. Academic
Press, Orlando.
Benstein, R.M., Z. Çebi, B. Podola and M. Melkonian. 2014. Immobilized growth of the peridinin-producing marine
dinoflagellate symbiodinium in a simple biofilm photobioreactor. Mar. Biotechnol. 16: 621–628.
Berdalet, E. 1992. Effects of turbulence on marine dinoflagellate Gymnodinium nelsonii. J. Phycol. 28: 267–272.
Berdalet, E., F. Peters, V.L. Koumandou, C. Roldán, Ò. Guadayol and M. Estrada. 2007. Species-specific physiological response
of dinoflagellates to quantified small-scale turbulence. J. Phycol. 43: 965–977.
Berde, C.B., U. Athiraman, B. Yahalom, D. Zurakowski, G. Corfas and C. Bognet. 2011. Tetrodotoxin-bupivacaine-epinephrine
combinations for prolonged local anesthesia. Mar. Drugs 9: 2717–2728.
Beuzenberg, V., D. Mountfort, P. Holland, F. Shi and L. Mackenzie. 2012. Optimization of growth and production of toxins
by three dinoflagellates in photobioreactor cultures. J. Appl. Phycol. 24: 1023–1033.
Blunt, J.W., B.R. Copp, R.A. Keyzers, M.H.G. Munro and M.R. Prinsep. 2016. Marine natural products. Nat. Prod. Rep.
33: 382–431.
Bomber, J.W., M.G. Rubio and D.R. Norris. 1989. Epiphytism of dinoflagellates associated with the disease ciguatera: substrate
specificity and nutrition. Phycologia 28: 360–368.
Bošnjaković, M. 2013. Biodiesel from algae. J. Mechan. Eng. and Autom. 3: 179–188.
Bralewska, J.M. and Z. Witek. 1995. Heterotrophic dinoflagellates in the ecosystem of the Gulf of Gdansk. Mar. Ecol. Prog.
Ser. 117: 241–248.
Bravo, I. and R. Figueroa. 2014. Towards an ecological understanding of dinoflagellate cyst functions. Microorganisms. 2:11–32
Cao, Z., K.T. LePage, M.O. Frederick, K.C. Nicolaou and T.F. Murray. 2010. Involvement of caspase activation in azaspiracidinduced neurotoxicity in neocortical neurons. Toxicol. Sci. 114: 323–334.
Carlson, R.D., G. Morey-Ganes, D.R. Tindall and R.W. Dickey. 1984. Ecology of toxic dinoflagellates from the caribbean
sea: Effects of macroalgal extracts on growth in culture. pp. 271–287. In: E.P. Ragelis (ed.). Seafood Toxins. American
Chemical Society, Washigton DC.
Carvalho, A.P., L.A. Meireles and F.X. Malcata. 2006. Microalgal reactors: a review of enclosed system designs and
performances. Biotechnol. Prog. 22: 1490–506.
Cavalier-Smith, T., Z. Zhang and B.R. Green. 1999. Single gene circles in dinoflagellate chloroplast genomes. Nature 400:
155–159.
Cembella, A.D. 2003. Chemical ecology of eukaryotic microalgae in marine ecosystems. Phycologia 42: 420–447.
Chae, H.D., T.S. Choi, B.M. Kim, J.H. Jung, Y.J. Bang and D.Y. Shin. 2005. Oocyte-based screening of cytokinesis inhibitors
and identification of pectenotoxin-2 that induces Bim/Bax-mediated apoptosis in p53-deficient tumors. Oncogene 24:
4813–4819.
Chen, A.K., M.I. Latz and J.A. Fringes. 2003. The use of dinoflagellate bioluminescence to characterize cell stimulation in
bioreactors. Biotechnology. Boeing. 83: 93–103.
China in, M., H.T. Darius, A. Dung, P. Crochet, Z. Wang, D. Pontoon, D. Laurent and S. Papilla. 2010. Growth and toxin
production in the ciguatera-causing dinoflagellate Gambier discus polynesiensis (Dinophyceae) in culture. Toxicon.
56: 739–750.
Chisti, Y. 2000. Animal-cell damage in sparged bioreactors. Trends Biotechnology 18: 420–432.
Coffroth, M. and S. Santos. 2005. Genetic diversity of symbiotic dinoflagellates in the genus Symbiodinium. Protist. 156: 19–34.
Daranas, A.H., M. Norte and J.J. Fernández. 2001. Toxic marine microalgae. Toxicon. 39: 1101–1132.
Doblin, M.A., P.A. Thompson, A.T. Revill, E.C. V. Butler, S.I. Blackburn and G.M. Hallegraeff. 2006. Vertical migration of
the toxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum under different concentrations of nutrients and humic substances in
culture. Harmful Algae 5: 665–677.