Signs of Change
location and pay more to observe undamaged reefs. The
value of tourism has been critical for some sites in
providing direct income for management and enforcement
activities. For example, user fees in the marine parks on
Saba and Bonaire in the Netherlands Antilles provided
60-70 percent of the annual park running costs in 1999,
with much of the remainder being provided by sales of
souvenirs and yacht fees. Even where such direct benefits
cannot be calculated, however, the income provided to
individual hotels, dive companies and national economies
from dive tourism is clearly enhanced in many countries
by the presence of protected areas.
Multiple-use protected areas
Small protected areas are relatively simple to designate
and manage, but in many areas fail to address the complex
problems facing coral reefs. Most reefs are utilized by a
broad range of "stakeholders", often with widely differing
or conflicting requirements. Another approach to coral
reef management has been the designation of typically
very large areas, within which zones or sectors are marked
out for different uses.
The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park is the largest
coral reef protected area in the world, and is the best
known multiple-use protected area. Designated in 1979
it covers some 344 800 square kilometers. In fact the
majority of the park area is open to a considerable range
of activities, including trawling and most other fishing
methods. About 21 percent of the park is closed to
trawling and, included in this, about 5 percent (but 12
percent of the reefs) is closed to all fishing. In fact the
system of zoning also has restrictions on all access in
"preservation zones" and "scientific research zones", and
other fisheries restrictions including areas of periodic or
seasonal fisheries closures. The size of this park ensures
the integrated management of the largest interconnected
reef system in the world. It provides a clear example of
a holistic approach to reef management, with a clearly
planned subdivision of reef zones. It has benefited from
having a powerful and independent management authority,
but has also made considerable progress in recent years
through the encouragement of wide public participation in
the planning and management process.
At a much smaller scale, the Soufriere Marine
Management Area in St. Lucia provides an example of
how the same principles of zoning and multiple use may
be applied in developing countries. This area covers 1
1
kilometers of the western coastline of the island. It was
developed following a long period of public consultation,
and legally established in 1994. Zones set aside particular
areas for recreation, yacht anchoring, marine reserves
(with no fishing, but diving and/or diving permitted with
a ticket) and also fishing priority areas (typically adjacent
to the marine reserves). Since 1999 the armual fees paid
by the 6 300 divers and 3 600 visiting yachts have made
the management authority self-financing. Fish biomass
has tripled in the marine reserve areas, and fishers are
reporting increased yields from the adjacent fishing
priority areas.
International designations
While the vast majority of protected areas are established
at the national or even local level, a large number of
important sites around the world are receiving international recognition through a number of global and
regional agreements and conventions. The best known
and most widely applied of these are the Convention
on Wetlands of International Importance especially as
Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), the Convention
Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural
Heritage (World Heritage Convention), and the UNESCO
Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme.
Originally focussed towards waterfowl protection,
the Ramsar Convention has been highly successful, with
thousands of sites designated worldwide, and active
encouragement of the inclusion of marine sites. Member
states are required to identify and conserve sites considered to be of international importance, which according
to the convention includes sites to a depth of 6 meters
below sea level. Some 20 sites have thus far been designated which include coral reefs.
The World Heritage Convention focusses towards the
identification and protection of areas of "outstanding and
universal value", including both cultural and natural sites.
Acceptance on the World Heritage List is only awarded
to sites after a rigorous selection process. Thus far some
18 sites have been declared which include coral reefs.
UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme is not
a strict convention, but a scientific program under the
auspices of the United Nations Educational. Scientific
and Cultural Organization. Under this program biosphere
reserves are designated to encourage a broad range of
objectives tying together humans and their environment.
Sites therefore typically encompass management towards
sustainable utilization, research, monitoring and biodiversity conservation. They also serve an important
role as demonstrations of human interaction with the
environment. To date some 17 sites have been declared
which include coral reefs.
In the majority of cases these international designations
are applied to sites which are already protected under
national legislation. International recognition remains very
important for a number of reasons. It provides an additional
"layer" of legal protection, which can further restrict damaging activities, or attempts by national governments to
allow, or ignore, damaging activities. It can provide support
for the management and maintenance of sites, allowing the
networking of managers, the sharing of ideas, and often
location and pay more to observe undamaged reefs. The
value of tourism has been critical for some sites in
providing direct income for management and enforcement
activities. For example, user fees in the marine parks on
Saba and Bonaire in the Netherlands Antilles provided
60-70 percent of the annual park running costs in 1999,
with much of the remainder being provided by sales of
souvenirs and yacht fees. Even where such direct benefits
cannot be calculated, however, the income provided to
individual hotels, dive companies and national economies
from dive tourism is clearly enhanced in many countries
by the presence of protected areas.
Multiple-use protected areas
Small protected areas are relatively simple to designate
and manage, but in many areas fail to address the complex
problems facing coral reefs. Most reefs are utilized by a
broad range of "stakeholders", often with widely differing
or conflicting requirements. Another approach to coral
reef management has been the designation of typically
very large areas, within which zones or sectors are marked
out for different uses.
The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park is the largest
coral reef protected area in the world, and is the best
known multiple-use protected area. Designated in 1979
it covers some 344 800 square kilometers. In fact the
majority of the park area is open to a considerable range
of activities, including trawling and most other fishing
methods. About 21 percent of the park is closed to
trawling and, included in this, about 5 percent (but 12
percent of the reefs) is closed to all fishing. In fact the
system of zoning also has restrictions on all access in
"preservation zones" and "scientific research zones", and
other fisheries restrictions including areas of periodic or
seasonal fisheries closures. The size of this park ensures
the integrated management of the largest interconnected
reef system in the world. It provides a clear example of
a holistic approach to reef management, with a clearly
planned subdivision of reef zones. It has benefited from
having a powerful and independent management authority,
but has also made considerable progress in recent years
through the encouragement of wide public participation in
the planning and management process.
At a much smaller scale, the Soufriere Marine
Management Area in St. Lucia provides an example of
how the same principles of zoning and multiple use may
be applied in developing countries. This area covers 1
1
kilometers of the western coastline of the island. It was
developed following a long period of public consultation,
and legally established in 1994. Zones set aside particular
areas for recreation, yacht anchoring, marine reserves
(with no fishing, but diving and/or diving permitted with
a ticket) and also fishing priority areas (typically adjacent
to the marine reserves). Since 1999 the armual fees paid
by the 6 300 divers and 3 600 visiting yachts have made
the management authority self-financing. Fish biomass
has tripled in the marine reserve areas, and fishers are
reporting increased yields from the adjacent fishing
priority areas.
International designations
While the vast majority of protected areas are established
at the national or even local level, a large number of
important sites around the world are receiving international recognition through a number of global and
regional agreements and conventions. The best known
and most widely applied of these are the Convention
on Wetlands of International Importance especially as
Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), the Convention
Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural
Heritage (World Heritage Convention), and the UNESCO
Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme.
Originally focussed towards waterfowl protection,
the Ramsar Convention has been highly successful, with
thousands of sites designated worldwide, and active
encouragement of the inclusion of marine sites. Member
states are required to identify and conserve sites considered to be of international importance, which according
to the convention includes sites to a depth of 6 meters
below sea level. Some 20 sites have thus far been designated which include coral reefs.
The World Heritage Convention focusses towards the
identification and protection of areas of "outstanding and
universal value", including both cultural and natural sites.
Acceptance on the World Heritage List is only awarded
to sites after a rigorous selection process. Thus far some
18 sites have been declared which include coral reefs.
UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme is not
a strict convention, but a scientific program under the
auspices of the United Nations Educational. Scientific
and Cultural Organization. Under this program biosphere
reserves are designated to encourage a broad range of
objectives tying together humans and their environment.
Sites therefore typically encompass management towards
sustainable utilization, research, monitoring and biodiversity conservation. They also serve an important
role as demonstrations of human interaction with the
environment. To date some 17 sites have been declared
which include coral reefs.
In the majority of cases these international designations
are applied to sites which are already protected under
national legislation. International recognition remains very
important for a number of reasons. It provides an additional
"layer" of legal protection, which can further restrict damaging activities, or attempts by national governments to
allow, or ignore, damaging activities. It can provide support
for the management and maintenance of sites, allowing the
networking of managers, the sharing of ideas, and often