260
2010, natural gas power generation is favoured for the desalination plants, while the
national power system is still based on coal.
The prices for desalinated water are composed of a fi xed price component for
capital costs and a variable price component for variable costs, mainly for electricity
prices (Lokiec 2011 ). The variable price is paid according to the quantity of water
actually delivered, while the fi xed price is paid according to the facilities’ capacity.
The prices of desalinated water from Israel’s seawater desalination facilities are
among the lowest worldwide. The national average is at USD 0.65; Sorek desalination plant is at USD 0.52 (Tenne 2010 ).
Cohen ( 2011 ) carried out a survey on the environmental impact of seawater
desalination in Israel. He concluded that the Ashkelon, Palmachim and Hadera
plants have no signifi cant impact on the ecosystems of the receiving environments.
One of the limiting factors for the construction of new seawater desalination plants
in Israel is the limited space on Israel’s shorelines. Therefore, planned construction
of future seawater desalination plants will be offshore (Tenne 2014, personal
communication).
The water from the desalination plants has improved the water supply quality
both for private households and agricultural uses. Hardness and salinity were
reduced. This has had positive effects on lifetime of heaters and other household
devices, and the productivity of agriculture was increased due to lowered salinity
levels in the water supplied to agriculture (Tenne et al. 2013 ).
The water from the desalination plants is introduced into the National Water
Carrier (see Fig. 16.3 ). The desalination plants must operate continuously in order
to get the fi xed cost component fi nanced through water sales (Dreizin et al. 2008 ).
Changes in water demand are therefore adjusted by inputs from the various “natural” water supply sources (e.g. groundwater). As a result of the water privatisation
policy, the management of the supply is more oriented towards the goal of reducing
costs. This means that domestic users may be provided with water from other
sources than desalinated water and that agriculture may also use water from desalination instead of using treated wastewater. This led to confl icts between the policy
of the Israel Water Authority with its objective of saving water and taking water
from wastewater reuse and the actual supply management of the desalination plants
and Mekorot (Tenne et al. 2013 ) that is oriented towards using the full amount of
desalinated water available.
16.5 Extension of Wastewater Treatment Plants
In 2011 96 % of the Israeli population was connected to an urban wastewater treatment system (Fig. 16.4 ). Most of the wastewater treatment plants are characterised
by either secondary or tertiary treatment level. The water from tertiary treatment is
unrestricted for irrigation uses. With the enlargement of the treatment capacities,
new stringent quality parameters were introduced.
C. Bismuth et al.
2010, natural gas power generation is favoured for the desalination plants, while the
national power system is still based on coal.
The prices for desalinated water are composed of a fi xed price component for
capital costs and a variable price component for variable costs, mainly for electricity
prices (Lokiec 2011 ). The variable price is paid according to the quantity of water
actually delivered, while the fi xed price is paid according to the facilities’ capacity.
The prices of desalinated water from Israel’s seawater desalination facilities are
among the lowest worldwide. The national average is at USD 0.65; Sorek desalination plant is at USD 0.52 (Tenne 2010 ).
Cohen ( 2011 ) carried out a survey on the environmental impact of seawater
desalination in Israel. He concluded that the Ashkelon, Palmachim and Hadera
plants have no signifi cant impact on the ecosystems of the receiving environments.
One of the limiting factors for the construction of new seawater desalination plants
in Israel is the limited space on Israel’s shorelines. Therefore, planned construction
of future seawater desalination plants will be offshore (Tenne 2014, personal
communication).
The water from the desalination plants has improved the water supply quality
both for private households and agricultural uses. Hardness and salinity were
reduced. This has had positive effects on lifetime of heaters and other household
devices, and the productivity of agriculture was increased due to lowered salinity
levels in the water supplied to agriculture (Tenne et al. 2013 ).
The water from the desalination plants is introduced into the National Water
Carrier (see Fig. 16.3 ). The desalination plants must operate continuously in order
to get the fi xed cost component fi nanced through water sales (Dreizin et al. 2008 ).
Changes in water demand are therefore adjusted by inputs from the various “natural” water supply sources (e.g. groundwater). As a result of the water privatisation
policy, the management of the supply is more oriented towards the goal of reducing
costs. This means that domestic users may be provided with water from other
sources than desalinated water and that agriculture may also use water from desalination instead of using treated wastewater. This led to confl icts between the policy
of the Israel Water Authority with its objective of saving water and taking water
from wastewater reuse and the actual supply management of the desalination plants
and Mekorot (Tenne et al. 2013 ) that is oriented towards using the full amount of
desalinated water available.
16.5 Extension of Wastewater Treatment Plants
In 2011 96 % of the Israeli population was connected to an urban wastewater treatment system (Fig. 16.4 ). Most of the wastewater treatment plants are characterised
by either secondary or tertiary treatment level. The water from tertiary treatment is
unrestricted for irrigation uses. With the enlargement of the treatment capacities,
new stringent quality parameters were introduced.
C. Bismuth et al.