153
these reforms included the deterioration of on-farm water infrastructure, unequal
distribution of water, frequent confl icts amongst water users, ineffi cient irrigation
methods and signifi cant reduction of the state budget for local irrigation administration. In the case of Uzbekistan, for example, during 1991–2000, there was a serious
deterioration of the secondary and tertiary canal systems because former collective
and state farms could not operate and maintain irrigation canals due to inadequate
funding. This resulted in low yields and, subsequently, low incomes for farmers.
Meanwhile, the distribution of irrigation water became severely unequal, especially
for downstream farmers. Disputes amongst farmers over water increased. It became
important to introduce farmer-based organisations in place of the poorly functioning
collective farms. In 1996, the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources (MAWR)
of Uzbekistan contracted the Irrigation and Water Problems Research Institute (former SANIIRI) to study the experience of different countries with WUAs and to set
up a framework for the establishment of WUAs. In 1999, SANIIRI completed the
study and presented its recommendations to MAWR. As a result, the fi rst WUA was
created in Uzbekistan in February 2000 in the Khorezm Region (Hamidov 2007 ).
The fi rst WUAs in the Uzbek section of the Fergana Valley were founded in January
2002 (MAWR RUz 2014 ).
Critical behind the emergence of WUAs was the IWRM Fergana project funded
by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation from 2001 onwards. This
transboundary project helped institutionalise IWRM as the guiding policy paradigm
for the region (Gunchinmaa and Yakubov 2010 , p. 166; Dukhovny et al. 2013 ). A
key element of this IWRM-inspired reform process was to transfer operation and
maintenance responsibilities for on-farm irrigation to water users in the form of
WUAs. This new governance structure at the lower level was, in theory at least,
intended to encourage local farmers to act collectively in managing and maintaining
their irrigation systems. Additional institutional arrangements, such as the irrigation
service fee, were also introduced by this reform.
11.2.2 Organisational Structure of WUAs
Unlike in neighbouring Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, there is no specifi c law on
WUAs in Uzbekistan (Gunchinmaa and Yakubov 2010 , p. 173). The legal basis
for their status and organisation is provided primarily by the Cabinet of Ministers’
Decree No.8, approved in 2002, which determines WUAs as the entity responsible for irrigation management at on-farm level in Uzbekistan. Subsequently, the
reformed national Water and Water Use Act of 29 December 2009 clarifi ed the
role of WUAs, specifying for instance that WUAs are required to deal with internal confl icts relating to water distribution amongst water users (Art. 2.1) and that
they should cooperate with state agencies in protecting and conserving water
(Art. 10). National policy guidelines require WUAs to be organised around two
units: a decision-making body and a management body (ADB 2006 ). Figure 11.1
provides an example of the typical structure of a WUA in Uzbekistan. The upper
11 Where Water Meets Agriculture: The Ambivalent Role of Water Users Associations
these reforms included the deterioration of on-farm water infrastructure, unequal
distribution of water, frequent confl icts amongst water users, ineffi cient irrigation
methods and signifi cant reduction of the state budget for local irrigation administration. In the case of Uzbekistan, for example, during 1991–2000, there was a serious
deterioration of the secondary and tertiary canal systems because former collective
and state farms could not operate and maintain irrigation canals due to inadequate
funding. This resulted in low yields and, subsequently, low incomes for farmers.
Meanwhile, the distribution of irrigation water became severely unequal, especially
for downstream farmers. Disputes amongst farmers over water increased. It became
important to introduce farmer-based organisations in place of the poorly functioning
collective farms. In 1996, the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources (MAWR)
of Uzbekistan contracted the Irrigation and Water Problems Research Institute (former SANIIRI) to study the experience of different countries with WUAs and to set
up a framework for the establishment of WUAs. In 1999, SANIIRI completed the
study and presented its recommendations to MAWR. As a result, the fi rst WUA was
created in Uzbekistan in February 2000 in the Khorezm Region (Hamidov 2007 ).
The fi rst WUAs in the Uzbek section of the Fergana Valley were founded in January
2002 (MAWR RUz 2014 ).
Critical behind the emergence of WUAs was the IWRM Fergana project funded
by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation from 2001 onwards. This
transboundary project helped institutionalise IWRM as the guiding policy paradigm
for the region (Gunchinmaa and Yakubov 2010 , p. 166; Dukhovny et al. 2013 ). A
key element of this IWRM-inspired reform process was to transfer operation and
maintenance responsibilities for on-farm irrigation to water users in the form of
WUAs. This new governance structure at the lower level was, in theory at least,
intended to encourage local farmers to act collectively in managing and maintaining
their irrigation systems. Additional institutional arrangements, such as the irrigation
service fee, were also introduced by this reform.
11.2.2 Organisational Structure of WUAs
Unlike in neighbouring Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, there is no specifi c law on
WUAs in Uzbekistan (Gunchinmaa and Yakubov 2010 , p. 173). The legal basis
for their status and organisation is provided primarily by the Cabinet of Ministers’
Decree No.8, approved in 2002, which determines WUAs as the entity responsible for irrigation management at on-farm level in Uzbekistan. Subsequently, the
reformed national Water and Water Use Act of 29 December 2009 clarifi ed the
role of WUAs, specifying for instance that WUAs are required to deal with internal confl icts relating to water distribution amongst water users (Art. 2.1) and that
they should cooperate with state agencies in protecting and conserving water
(Art. 10). National policy guidelines require WUAs to be organised around two
units: a decision-making body and a management body (ADB 2006 ). Figure 11.1
provides an example of the typical structure of a WUA in Uzbekistan. The upper
11 Where Water Meets Agriculture: The Ambivalent Role of Water Users Associations