may best be done using aerial photographs taken in October, while the assessment of
meadow cover diversity with those taken in July (Tomaszewska 1988). This author
found that complexity of landscape attributes in the Biebrza Valley has considerably
increased over the preceding three decades due to encroachment of shrubby and
woodland vegetation onto the open landscape. This was also corroborated by
Pio ´rkowski and Rycharski (1999). The accurateness of image interpretation is largely
dependent upon the indices which result from the comparison of image readouts and
data obtained in the course of in-situ survey or ground truthing (Tomaszewska 1988).
The evaluation of changes in the land cover diversity of Biebrza Valley may also be
interpreted from aerial photographs with the use of such indices as NDVI –
Normalised Difference Vegetation Index, LAI (Leaf Area Index) and VM (Vegetation
Moisture). In the latter case, the images need to be taken at the peak of vegetation
season (Tomaszewska 1988). Other important indicators rely on erosion phenomena –
transportation of soil material and physical deformation of soil surface as well as on
biodiversity in terms of changes in the flora and fauna species richness. The latter
attributes depend largely on climate changes both in the long term and as short term
disturbances. Temporal resolution for evaluations of changes at landscape level based
on remote sensing imagery was defined for several year (3–5) intervals (Tomaszewska
1988). The changes in wetland landscapes in BNP are conditioned to a great extent by
the changes in the local hydrological systems – water cycle, inflow and outflow
(Kucharski 2010; Schmidt et al. 2000).
According to Jones-Walters (2008), biodiversity may be used as an indicator for
assessing changes at landscape scale (contribution of individual ecosystems –
assessment of landscape patchiness) and for the estimation of changes in individual
ecosystems, especially to evaluate their fragmentation. Changes in the behaviour
and distribution of birds as a group and individual species provide metrics for
indicators of climate change at national, regional and global levels. The same is
valid for amphibian species and populations which are extremely sensitive to
changes in climatic and site parameters. Being comparatively easy to monitor
with standard methods, they may be applied as indicators at various spatial scales,
e.g. metrics built on species composition and population size at biotope or habitat
level, and those built on data of species assemblages (composition, species richness,
diversity) at the protected area level.
Changes in air, soil and water temperature, in precipitation, humidity and radiation
affect animal and plant life cycles, in particular wetland plant communities and
amphibian populations are highly dependent on climate changes. Observations of
amphibian behaviour (migration time/e.g. earlier or later, reproduction time),
reproduction success (number and size of clutches, developmental time/metamorphose rates, sex ratio) and habitat quality (spawning water temperature, presence of
winter habitats for hibernation) provide bases for indicating changes at habitat level
(Table 6.2).
Plant cover, phenology and species composition provide for one of the best
indicators for monitoring climate-induced changes in habitats on condition that the
observations are repeated over a long time period since e.g. “community structure”
and “species composition” show net assignment to fluctuations in abiotic parameters such as light, temperature and water availability. Soil organic matter (SOM) is
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J. Sienkiewicz et al.
meadow cover diversity with those taken in July (Tomaszewska 1988). This author
found that complexity of landscape attributes in the Biebrza Valley has considerably
increased over the preceding three decades due to encroachment of shrubby and
woodland vegetation onto the open landscape. This was also corroborated by
Pio ´rkowski and Rycharski (1999). The accurateness of image interpretation is largely
dependent upon the indices which result from the comparison of image readouts and
data obtained in the course of in-situ survey or ground truthing (Tomaszewska 1988).
The evaluation of changes in the land cover diversity of Biebrza Valley may also be
interpreted from aerial photographs with the use of such indices as NDVI –
Normalised Difference Vegetation Index, LAI (Leaf Area Index) and VM (Vegetation
Moisture). In the latter case, the images need to be taken at the peak of vegetation
season (Tomaszewska 1988). Other important indicators rely on erosion phenomena –
transportation of soil material and physical deformation of soil surface as well as on
biodiversity in terms of changes in the flora and fauna species richness. The latter
attributes depend largely on climate changes both in the long term and as short term
disturbances. Temporal resolution for evaluations of changes at landscape level based
on remote sensing imagery was defined for several year (3–5) intervals (Tomaszewska
1988). The changes in wetland landscapes in BNP are conditioned to a great extent by
the changes in the local hydrological systems – water cycle, inflow and outflow
(Kucharski 2010; Schmidt et al. 2000).
According to Jones-Walters (2008), biodiversity may be used as an indicator for
assessing changes at landscape scale (contribution of individual ecosystems –
assessment of landscape patchiness) and for the estimation of changes in individual
ecosystems, especially to evaluate their fragmentation. Changes in the behaviour
and distribution of birds as a group and individual species provide metrics for
indicators of climate change at national, regional and global levels. The same is
valid for amphibian species and populations which are extremely sensitive to
changes in climatic and site parameters. Being comparatively easy to monitor
with standard methods, they may be applied as indicators at various spatial scales,
e.g. metrics built on species composition and population size at biotope or habitat
level, and those built on data of species assemblages (composition, species richness,
diversity) at the protected area level.
Changes in air, soil and water temperature, in precipitation, humidity and radiation
affect animal and plant life cycles, in particular wetland plant communities and
amphibian populations are highly dependent on climate changes. Observations of
amphibian behaviour (migration time/e.g. earlier or later, reproduction time),
reproduction success (number and size of clutches, developmental time/metamorphose rates, sex ratio) and habitat quality (spawning water temperature, presence of
winter habitats for hibernation) provide bases for indicating changes at habitat level
(Table 6.2).
Plant cover, phenology and species composition provide for one of the best
indicators for monitoring climate-induced changes in habitats on condition that the
observations are repeated over a long time period since e.g. “community structure”
and “species composition” show net assignment to fluctuations in abiotic parameters such as light, temperature and water availability. Soil organic matter (SOM) is
82
J. Sienkiewicz et al.