1.4 Challenges to the Sustainable Development
of Upland Agriculture
As a consequence of these four drivers, farming systems in the mountainous areas
of Thailand and Vietnam have been transformed from near subsistence systems—
growing upland rice and sometimes opium poppies (Papaver somniferum) and
using swidden agriculture with long fallow periods, to commercial farming
systems—using external inputs to intensively grow cash crops such as maize,
vegetables, fruits and flowers (Table 1.3). This change in land use has been
accompanied by technological change and the monetization of labor relationships.
For instance, through the process of agricultural commercialization, labor sharing
arrangements that are common in subsistence agriculture have been increasingly
replaced by wage labor and contract farming arrangements, with household
members also increasingly engaged in off-farm work.
Economic studies have shown that commercialization and market integration,
which generally mean a diversification of agriculture away from rice, have led to a
reduction in poverty and greater levels of economic well-being among households
(Minot et al. 2006; Tipraqsa and Schreinemachers 2009; Zeller et al. in Chap. 12),
yet each stage of the commercialization process also has its challenges, as shown in
Table 1.4. For instance, as farmers engage in high-value crop production they are
increasingly exposed to price variability and social risks (Fischer and Buchenrieder
2009; Sricharoen et al. 2008) or environmental risks from unabated soil fertility loss
(Wezel et al. 2002a; Schmitter et al. 2011; Schad et al. 2012). We describe these
challenges in more detail in the following sections.
1.4.1 Sustainable Use of Soil and Water Resources
Mountainous areas in mainland Southeast Asia are characterized by the presence of
fragile natural systems with steep slopes, high rainfall intensities, seasonally dry
periods and naturally erodible soils (Sidle et al. 2006). Due to these conditions, land
use change and land use intensification can change the quality and dynamics of soil
and water resources in various ways (Ziegler et al. 2009), and these soil and water
dynamics are intricately linked. Being rich in organic matter, topsoil contains a
significant proportion of the nutrients and carbon necessary for plant growth, and is
therefore essential for agricultural production and for a stable soil structure that can
withstand erosive storm events with a limited breakdown of soil aggregates. Soil
sealing occurs when this structure is disturbed through increased tillage, as the
impact of rain drops disperses soil particles, which in turn fill pores on the soil
surface, rendering the soil relatively impermeable to water and leading to increased
surface runoff which in turn can lead to the detachment and erosion of matter,
including nutrients and soil organic matter. The disturbance of the topsoil also
fastens the mineralization of organic matter, decreasing the structural stability of
14
P. Schreinemachers et al.
of Upland Agriculture
As a consequence of these four drivers, farming systems in the mountainous areas
of Thailand and Vietnam have been transformed from near subsistence systems—
growing upland rice and sometimes opium poppies (Papaver somniferum) and
using swidden agriculture with long fallow periods, to commercial farming
systems—using external inputs to intensively grow cash crops such as maize,
vegetables, fruits and flowers (Table 1.3). This change in land use has been
accompanied by technological change and the monetization of labor relationships.
For instance, through the process of agricultural commercialization, labor sharing
arrangements that are common in subsistence agriculture have been increasingly
replaced by wage labor and contract farming arrangements, with household
members also increasingly engaged in off-farm work.
Economic studies have shown that commercialization and market integration,
which generally mean a diversification of agriculture away from rice, have led to a
reduction in poverty and greater levels of economic well-being among households
(Minot et al. 2006; Tipraqsa and Schreinemachers 2009; Zeller et al. in Chap. 12),
yet each stage of the commercialization process also has its challenges, as shown in
Table 1.4. For instance, as farmers engage in high-value crop production they are
increasingly exposed to price variability and social risks (Fischer and Buchenrieder
2009; Sricharoen et al. 2008) or environmental risks from unabated soil fertility loss
(Wezel et al. 2002a; Schmitter et al. 2011; Schad et al. 2012). We describe these
challenges in more detail in the following sections.
1.4.1 Sustainable Use of Soil and Water Resources
Mountainous areas in mainland Southeast Asia are characterized by the presence of
fragile natural systems with steep slopes, high rainfall intensities, seasonally dry
periods and naturally erodible soils (Sidle et al. 2006). Due to these conditions, land
use change and land use intensification can change the quality and dynamics of soil
and water resources in various ways (Ziegler et al. 2009), and these soil and water
dynamics are intricately linked. Being rich in organic matter, topsoil contains a
significant proportion of the nutrients and carbon necessary for plant growth, and is
therefore essential for agricultural production and for a stable soil structure that can
withstand erosive storm events with a limited breakdown of soil aggregates. Soil
sealing occurs when this structure is disturbed through increased tillage, as the
impact of rain drops disperses soil particles, which in turn fill pores on the soil
surface, rendering the soil relatively impermeable to water and leading to increased
surface runoff which in turn can lead to the detachment and erosion of matter,
including nutrients and soil organic matter. The disturbance of the topsoil also
fastens the mineralization of organic matter, decreasing the structural stability of
14
P. Schreinemachers et al.