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The extent to which these principles also hold for (young) children is subject to
debate and research, but there is some evidence that allowing children to co-decide
on what on how they learn about and for sustainability, has a direct impact on their
sustainability consciousness (Boeve-de Pauw et al. 2015). As such, participatory
learning for children in primary schools seems to contribute to the development of
competences that pave the way for them to develop into Environmental Citizens. It
should be noted that in their study, Boeve-de Pauw et al. (2015) also showed that
students in secondary education had increased participation in their own learning
process (which meant an increase in learning sustainability learning outcomes), but
for students in primary education (grade 6 in particular), there seemed to be a point
of too much participation, resulting in a decline in the learning outcomes. The
authors identified ‘that learning environments with (among others) very high
degrees of participation in the learning process might be too demanding, cognitively
complex, or contain to high degrees of novelty for sixth graders […], which could
explain the resulting drop in the [educational] effectiveness [promoting their
adoption of sustainability related actions]’ (p. 15710).
We should acknowledge that these results stem from research in the context of
formal education. This is especially relevant when we consider Environmental
Citizenship as an outcome of non-formal education. Younnis (2011) highlights that
extra-curricular activities are essential in encouraging civic identity and action.
Given the focus of Environmental Citizens on ‘responsible pro-environmental
behaviour of citizens who act and participate in society as agents of change in the
private and public sphere, on a local, national and global scale, through individual
and collective actions, in the direction of solving contemporary environmental
problems, preventing the creation of new environmental problems, achieving
sustainability as well as developing a healthy relationship with nature’ (Hadjichambis
& Reis 2018). We therefore use the term non-formal Education for Environmental
Citizenship as an education that occurs outside the classroom, e.g. in after school
programmes, community-based organisations, museums, zoos, visitors centres,
libraries and at home, and which contributes to learning specific or all competences
needed as an Environmental Citizen.
We also highlight four relevant characteristics that can help define non-formal
programmes in the realm of Education for Environmental Citizenship. Each of these
characteristics offers opportunities that can benefit the goals of Education for
Environmental Citizenship. We also focus on the development of a healthy
relationship with nature.
1. The purposes of the programmes are not always uniformly or solely educational.
Providers of such programmes may also embed goals that are non-educational
but social or recreational.
2. The target audiences are diverse and can include school classes, other groups,
families and walk-in visitors. Participants in non-formal environmental learning
programmes are not often well known, and it can be difficult to describe the
audiences in ways to facilitate programme development specifically for the
target audience.
J. Boeve-de Pauw and R. Halbac-Zamfir
The extent to which these principles also hold for (young) children is subject to
debate and research, but there is some evidence that allowing children to co-decide
on what on how they learn about and for sustainability, has a direct impact on their
sustainability consciousness (Boeve-de Pauw et al. 2015). As such, participatory
learning for children in primary schools seems to contribute to the development of
competences that pave the way for them to develop into Environmental Citizens. It
should be noted that in their study, Boeve-de Pauw et al. (2015) also showed that
students in secondary education had increased participation in their own learning
process (which meant an increase in learning sustainability learning outcomes), but
for students in primary education (grade 6 in particular), there seemed to be a point
of too much participation, resulting in a decline in the learning outcomes. The
authors identified ‘that learning environments with (among others) very high
degrees of participation in the learning process might be too demanding, cognitively
complex, or contain to high degrees of novelty for sixth graders […], which could
explain the resulting drop in the [educational] effectiveness [promoting their
adoption of sustainability related actions]’ (p. 15710).
We should acknowledge that these results stem from research in the context of
formal education. This is especially relevant when we consider Environmental
Citizenship as an outcome of non-formal education. Younnis (2011) highlights that
extra-curricular activities are essential in encouraging civic identity and action.
Given the focus of Environmental Citizens on ‘responsible pro-environmental
behaviour of citizens who act and participate in society as agents of change in the
private and public sphere, on a local, national and global scale, through individual
and collective actions, in the direction of solving contemporary environmental
problems, preventing the creation of new environmental problems, achieving
sustainability as well as developing a healthy relationship with nature’ (Hadjichambis
& Reis 2018). We therefore use the term non-formal Education for Environmental
Citizenship as an education that occurs outside the classroom, e.g. in after school
programmes, community-based organisations, museums, zoos, visitors centres,
libraries and at home, and which contributes to learning specific or all competences
needed as an Environmental Citizen.
We also highlight four relevant characteristics that can help define non-formal
programmes in the realm of Education for Environmental Citizenship. Each of these
characteristics offers opportunities that can benefit the goals of Education for
Environmental Citizenship. We also focus on the development of a healthy
relationship with nature.
1. The purposes of the programmes are not always uniformly or solely educational.
Providers of such programmes may also embed goals that are non-educational
but social or recreational.
2. The target audiences are diverse and can include school classes, other groups,
families and walk-in visitors. Participants in non-formal environmental learning
programmes are not often well known, and it can be difficult to describe the
audiences in ways to facilitate programme development specifically for the
target audience.
J. Boeve-de Pauw and R. Halbac-Zamfir