128
At the time this model was developed, there was insufficient empirical evidence
as to the relationships between the variables and behaviour, and their importance to
environmental education was, and still is, acknowledged. According to this model,
the variable categories also work in a complex but linear way (Fig. 8.9).
Cognitive factors and skills are more explicitly addressed in the MotivationOpportunity- Abilities Model by Ölander and Thøgersen (1995) and similarly the
Needs-Opportunities-Abilities Model (cf. Gatersleben and Vlek 1998), which argue
that needs and opportunities together constitute the motivation to engage in a certain
behaviour, while abilities and opportunities together constitute the behavioural control required for performing it.
8.3.4 New Approaches to Environmental Behaviour Models
According to Stern (2000), encompassing models of environmentally significant
behaviour of individuals need to consider the following:
1. Personal attitudinal value-related variables: Personal motivational factors such
as attitudes, personal norms, beliefs (outcome beliefs, evaluation of possible outcomes), values and goals that are part general and part specific to a certain
behaviour. These correspond to motivational, affective learning goals in the educational frame.
2. Personal capabilities: These variables include knowledge and skills required for
particular actions, which correspond to cognitive learning goals, together with
behavioural control variables such as having enough time, money, power and
resources.
3. Contextual factors: These include restrictions and options, facilitating and inhibiting aspects of the social and physical environment such as available technology, geographic physical aspects, material costs and rewards, policies, laws and
regulations, social norms and expectations.
4. Habits: Past behaviour and its accumulated effect through the formation of
habits.
These four domains of influential aspects can be and have been conceptualised and
measured by a variety of environmental behaviour models in different ways.
However, most behaviour models do not include all four domains, and some behaviour models include concepts that are difficult to align with these domains. For
example, the TPB considers personal capabilities such as knowledge and skills only
indirectly via their influence on perceived behavioural control, and it does not
include past behaviour or habits as predictors of future behaviour. The predictive
power of ‘past behaviour’ has not been overlooked by Ajzen (1991). On the contrary, he acknowledges that ‘past behaviour is the best predictor of future behaviour’
(p. 202), if internal and external determinants of behaviour remain stable. However,
he regarded past behaviour as a tautological circular determinant of future behaviour that may be omitted in a good model and includes all actual explanative factors.
D. Goldman et al.
At the time this model was developed, there was insufficient empirical evidence
as to the relationships between the variables and behaviour, and their importance to
environmental education was, and still is, acknowledged. According to this model,
the variable categories also work in a complex but linear way (Fig. 8.9).
Cognitive factors and skills are more explicitly addressed in the MotivationOpportunity- Abilities Model by Ölander and Thøgersen (1995) and similarly the
Needs-Opportunities-Abilities Model (cf. Gatersleben and Vlek 1998), which argue
that needs and opportunities together constitute the motivation to engage in a certain
behaviour, while abilities and opportunities together constitute the behavioural control required for performing it.
8.3.4 New Approaches to Environmental Behaviour Models
According to Stern (2000), encompassing models of environmentally significant
behaviour of individuals need to consider the following:
1. Personal attitudinal value-related variables: Personal motivational factors such
as attitudes, personal norms, beliefs (outcome beliefs, evaluation of possible outcomes), values and goals that are part general and part specific to a certain
behaviour. These correspond to motivational, affective learning goals in the educational frame.
2. Personal capabilities: These variables include knowledge and skills required for
particular actions, which correspond to cognitive learning goals, together with
behavioural control variables such as having enough time, money, power and
resources.
3. Contextual factors: These include restrictions and options, facilitating and inhibiting aspects of the social and physical environment such as available technology, geographic physical aspects, material costs and rewards, policies, laws and
regulations, social norms and expectations.
4. Habits: Past behaviour and its accumulated effect through the formation of
habits.
These four domains of influential aspects can be and have been conceptualised and
measured by a variety of environmental behaviour models in different ways.
However, most behaviour models do not include all four domains, and some behaviour models include concepts that are difficult to align with these domains. For
example, the TPB considers personal capabilities such as knowledge and skills only
indirectly via their influence on perceived behavioural control, and it does not
include past behaviour or habits as predictors of future behaviour. The predictive
power of ‘past behaviour’ has not been overlooked by Ajzen (1991). On the contrary, he acknowledges that ‘past behaviour is the best predictor of future behaviour’
(p. 202), if internal and external determinants of behaviour remain stable. However,
he regarded past behaviour as a tautological circular determinant of future behaviour that may be omitted in a good model and includes all actual explanative factors.
D. Goldman et al.