This approach, based on the complementarity of territories for determining total
diversity, concurs with “gap analysis” techniques, which have been effectively
developed in conservation practice (Flather et al. 1997). An important issue is that
apart from the intrinsic value of biodiversity, the contribution of diversity to
ecosystem functioning—productivity, water, C and nutrient cycling—should also be
strongly emphasised, particularly because of its contribution to stability and resilience (Hooper et al. 2005).
2.6 Complex/Interacting Controls of Trade-offs
The functional properties of any ecological entity are multifactorial, and they often
interact. At the ecosystem level, conservation benefits from a framework that
recognises multiple services, which are equivalent to functional ecosystem properties that are relevant to humans. Ecosystem services are subjected to resource
allocation, and consequently, the trade-off approach can be applied, as far as human
societies invest distinctly in different ecosystem types or promote some functional
properties of ecosystems. In fact, conflicts between provisioning and regulating
services are common (Bennet et al. 2009), and they can be considered as trade-offs
provided a common currency is regarded. Often the outcome of these services
roughly corresponds to land use categories, considering the explicit spatial distribution of their properties in the territory, which in mountain regions correlates to
topography and distance from settlements and roads (Grêt-Regamey et al. 2008;
Paletto et al. 2015). Services that are typically provided by mountain ecosystems
include revenues from forests, grasslands or watersheds, protection against natural
hazards and outdoor recreation (Paletto et al. 2015; Vacchiano et al. 2015; Ventura
et al. 2017) (Table 2.1).
Tourism and leisure constitute one of the most important economic activities in
the mountain areas of developed countries. Despite its impact on habitats and water
resources (Nagy and Grabherr 2009), this activity can potentially generate strong
synergies with conservation goals. The economic value of these uses can be relatively easy to quantify in terms of consumption and investment (Paletto et al. 2015).
The contribution of natural systems favouring such activity can also be estimated by
various indirect methods for evaluating preferences (Grêt-Regamey et al. 2008), or
from indicators of aesthetic value, (f.e. changes in the colour diversity of grasslands,
Loucougaray et al. 2015). Nevertheless, the current state of uncertainty about the
quantification of ecosystem services is particularly marked in high mountain
regions (Grêt-Regamey et al. 2008).
The multiplicity of ecosystem services illustrates the potential existence of multiple
trade-offs operating on a given ecological entity. Furthermore, a parameter used
to estimate a given functional property may, in fact, respond to several functional
processes. Multiple trade-offs may be explored by correlation matrix between services,
highlighting the consistency of negative correlations. In contrast, positive correlations
would indicate synergies between services (e.g. Raudsepp-Hearne et al. 2010).
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diversity, concurs with “gap analysis” techniques, which have been effectively
developed in conservation practice (Flather et al. 1997). An important issue is that
apart from the intrinsic value of biodiversity, the contribution of diversity to
ecosystem functioning—productivity, water, C and nutrient cycling—should also be
strongly emphasised, particularly because of its contribution to stability and resilience (Hooper et al. 2005).
2.6 Complex/Interacting Controls of Trade-offs
The functional properties of any ecological entity are multifactorial, and they often
interact. At the ecosystem level, conservation benefits from a framework that
recognises multiple services, which are equivalent to functional ecosystem properties that are relevant to humans. Ecosystem services are subjected to resource
allocation, and consequently, the trade-off approach can be applied, as far as human
societies invest distinctly in different ecosystem types or promote some functional
properties of ecosystems. In fact, conflicts between provisioning and regulating
services are common (Bennet et al. 2009), and they can be considered as trade-offs
provided a common currency is regarded. Often the outcome of these services
roughly corresponds to land use categories, considering the explicit spatial distribution of their properties in the territory, which in mountain regions correlates to
topography and distance from settlements and roads (Grêt-Regamey et al. 2008;
Paletto et al. 2015). Services that are typically provided by mountain ecosystems
include revenues from forests, grasslands or watersheds, protection against natural
hazards and outdoor recreation (Paletto et al. 2015; Vacchiano et al. 2015; Ventura
et al. 2017) (Table 2.1).
Tourism and leisure constitute one of the most important economic activities in
the mountain areas of developed countries. Despite its impact on habitats and water
resources (Nagy and Grabherr 2009), this activity can potentially generate strong
synergies with conservation goals. The economic value of these uses can be relatively easy to quantify in terms of consumption and investment (Paletto et al. 2015).
The contribution of natural systems favouring such activity can also be estimated by
various indirect methods for evaluating preferences (Grêt-Regamey et al. 2008), or
from indicators of aesthetic value, (f.e. changes in the colour diversity of grasslands,
Loucougaray et al. 2015). Nevertheless, the current state of uncertainty about the
quantification of ecosystem services is particularly marked in high mountain
regions (Grêt-Regamey et al. 2008).
The multiplicity of ecosystem services illustrates the potential existence of multiple
trade-offs operating on a given ecological entity. Furthermore, a parameter used
to estimate a given functional property may, in fact, respond to several functional
processes. Multiple trade-offs may be explored by correlation matrix between services,
highlighting the consistency of negative correlations. In contrast, positive correlations
would indicate synergies between services (e.g. Raudsepp-Hearne et al. 2010).
50
F. Lloret