its behaviour and habitat use in the presence of the shark to balance the risk of
predation and its foraging (Heithaus et al. 2012). These behavioural changes cascade to the seagrass community by altering its biomass, structure, composition and
nutrient dynamics (Burkholder et al. 2013).
10.4 Impact on Mesopredators
Besides impacting on preys, large predators also have a bearing on mesopredators
(i.e., medium-sized predators) by decreasing their densities and reducing competition among both (Palomares and Caro 1999). In Norway, the European lynx preys
on red foxes (Sunde et al. 1999), whereas in Australia the dingo (Canis dingo) preys
on introduced red foxes and feral domestic cats (an invasive species in Australia),
and has positive effects on native medium-sized marsupials (Letnic et al. 2012).
Therefore, in Australia, introducing the dingo to reduce invasive mesopredators is
better than using lethal control with poison (Letnic et al. 2012). Large predators also
have an indirect impact by modifying the behaviour of other predators through the
creation of “fear landscapes”, i.e. areas of the territory that are avoided by mesopredators due to the presence of large predators (Sergio et al. 2008), as the use of
trails and paths (Hayward and Marlow 2014).
However, large predators can also produce the opposite effect on mesopredators,
by having a positive effect on them. Eagles, vultures, nocturnal raptors, foxes,
martens, wild boars, raccoons, dogs and other small predators and omnivores take
advantage of the increase in food left by large predators in the form of carrion
(especially during heavy winters) (Fig. 10.2).
10.5 Others Impacts on Ecosystems
Individual specialisation of large top predator behaviours also affects ecosystems
(Rosenblatt et al. 2013). Direct impact includes transporting nutrients between
habitats (Holtgrieve and Schindler 2011). Predators can also act as vectors between
different habitats, potentially affecting nutrient and biogeochemical dynamics
through localised behaviours (Rosenblatt et al. 2013). Predators have an indirect
impact by affecting nutrient transport between ecosystems by acting on prey species
that transport nutrients (Croll et al. 2005; Maron et al. 2006; Rosenblatt et al. 2013).
Large predators may contribute to the creation of heterogeneous nutrient patterns in
ecosystems through their own nutrient recycling (nitrogen and phosphorus), thus
inducing behavioural modifications in prey species that affect the distribution of
nutrients (Schmitz et al. 2000). This interaction may enable large top predators to
strongly influence the structure, composition and spatial patterns of local areas
through their participation in bottom-up processes (Rosenblatt et al. 2013). This
behaviour could create hotspots of foraging and nutrient recycling.
10 The Importance of Reintroducing Large Carnivores …
235
predation and its foraging (Heithaus et al. 2012). These behavioural changes cascade to the seagrass community by altering its biomass, structure, composition and
nutrient dynamics (Burkholder et al. 2013).
10.4 Impact on Mesopredators
Besides impacting on preys, large predators also have a bearing on mesopredators
(i.e., medium-sized predators) by decreasing their densities and reducing competition among both (Palomares and Caro 1999). In Norway, the European lynx preys
on red foxes (Sunde et al. 1999), whereas in Australia the dingo (Canis dingo) preys
on introduced red foxes and feral domestic cats (an invasive species in Australia),
and has positive effects on native medium-sized marsupials (Letnic et al. 2012).
Therefore, in Australia, introducing the dingo to reduce invasive mesopredators is
better than using lethal control with poison (Letnic et al. 2012). Large predators also
have an indirect impact by modifying the behaviour of other predators through the
creation of “fear landscapes”, i.e. areas of the territory that are avoided by mesopredators due to the presence of large predators (Sergio et al. 2008), as the use of
trails and paths (Hayward and Marlow 2014).
However, large predators can also produce the opposite effect on mesopredators,
by having a positive effect on them. Eagles, vultures, nocturnal raptors, foxes,
martens, wild boars, raccoons, dogs and other small predators and omnivores take
advantage of the increase in food left by large predators in the form of carrion
(especially during heavy winters) (Fig. 10.2).
10.5 Others Impacts on Ecosystems
Individual specialisation of large top predator behaviours also affects ecosystems
(Rosenblatt et al. 2013). Direct impact includes transporting nutrients between
habitats (Holtgrieve and Schindler 2011). Predators can also act as vectors between
different habitats, potentially affecting nutrient and biogeochemical dynamics
through localised behaviours (Rosenblatt et al. 2013). Predators have an indirect
impact by affecting nutrient transport between ecosystems by acting on prey species
that transport nutrients (Croll et al. 2005; Maron et al. 2006; Rosenblatt et al. 2013).
Large predators may contribute to the creation of heterogeneous nutrient patterns in
ecosystems through their own nutrient recycling (nitrogen and phosphorus), thus
inducing behavioural modifications in prey species that affect the distribution of
nutrients (Schmitz et al. 2000). This interaction may enable large top predators to
strongly influence the structure, composition and spatial patterns of local areas
through their participation in bottom-up processes (Rosenblatt et al. 2013). This
behaviour could create hotspots of foraging and nutrient recycling.
10 The Importance of Reintroducing Large Carnivores …
235