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16.2 Cultural Barriers to CSA Adoption
16.2.1 Religious Faith and Belief
Religious faith has proved a hindrance to the embrace of scientific climate forecasts.
In Namibia, seasonal climate forecasts (SCFs) are produced by the national meteorological services and then disseminated to farmers via agricultural extension officers and radio broadcasts, the latter of which reach 90% of the population. In
addition, a new online platform (http://www.lisa.com.na) allows farmers to interact
with experts via text message. Some farmers in northern Namibia, however, do not
take advantage of this information. Reasons for the low levels of uptake of SCF by
farmers in Africa include problems of downscaling, a limited capacity among farmers to understand forecast data, and mismatches between the information provided
by SCF and what is perceived as useful on the ground (Luseno et al. 2016; Singh
et al. 2017; Ziervogel and Calder 2003; Ziervogel and Opere 2010). Another major
reason, however, is the Christian belief, prevalent in northern Namibia, that rainfall
and crop productivity cannot be predicted but are solely dependent on the will of
God (also see Angula et al. 2016; Selato 2017; Spear et al. 2015). As explained by
an interview respondent, “I cannot tell if the drought is going to worsen or not—that
is God’s work” (Farmer 1). Another explained that “only God knows what is in the
future” (Farmer 2). Strong religious beliefs can make people accept their circumstances rather than use forecasts to inform their practices. From this perspective,
any anomalies in climate are perceived as punishment for people displeasing God in
some way: “maybe God is angry because of the things people are doing—that is
why we are not getting enough rainfall” (Farmer 3).
16.2.2 Symbolic Significance of Agricultural Practice
While livestock rearing contributes to livelihood security for farmers in southern
Africa in non-drought times, it can increase farmers’ vulnerability during extended
periods of low rainfall. Overstocking places more pressure on food and water
resources and may cause increased land degradation. Drought can also cause animals to die, a major financial loss for farmers. One farmer explained, “we used to
use animals to plough the field but those animals died in the drought last year and
the year before” (Farmer 10).
But even farmers who have previously experienced losses still choose to keep
livestock in the face of drought. The reasons for this reluctance are many: low market prices, collapse of markets, a lack of access to markets and a poor understanding
of the reasons to sell (Speranza 2010; Togarepi et al. 2016). In some cases, however,
a failure to sell is linked to the symbolic significance of livestock (Doran et al. 1979;
Hegga et al. 2016; Stroebel et al. 2008). In Namibia, cattle are often perceived as a
direct measure of affluence, status, prestige and security. Livestock rearing is used
16 Considering Religion and Tradition in Climate Smart Agriculture: Insights…
16.2 Cultural Barriers to CSA Adoption
16.2.1 Religious Faith and Belief
Religious faith has proved a hindrance to the embrace of scientific climate forecasts.
In Namibia, seasonal climate forecasts (SCFs) are produced by the national meteorological services and then disseminated to farmers via agricultural extension officers and radio broadcasts, the latter of which reach 90% of the population. In
addition, a new online platform (http://www.lisa.com.na) allows farmers to interact
with experts via text message. Some farmers in northern Namibia, however, do not
take advantage of this information. Reasons for the low levels of uptake of SCF by
farmers in Africa include problems of downscaling, a limited capacity among farmers to understand forecast data, and mismatches between the information provided
by SCF and what is perceived as useful on the ground (Luseno et al. 2016; Singh
et al. 2017; Ziervogel and Calder 2003; Ziervogel and Opere 2010). Another major
reason, however, is the Christian belief, prevalent in northern Namibia, that rainfall
and crop productivity cannot be predicted but are solely dependent on the will of
God (also see Angula et al. 2016; Selato 2017; Spear et al. 2015). As explained by
an interview respondent, “I cannot tell if the drought is going to worsen or not—that
is God’s work” (Farmer 1). Another explained that “only God knows what is in the
future” (Farmer 2). Strong religious beliefs can make people accept their circumstances rather than use forecasts to inform their practices. From this perspective,
any anomalies in climate are perceived as punishment for people displeasing God in
some way: “maybe God is angry because of the things people are doing—that is
why we are not getting enough rainfall” (Farmer 3).
16.2.2 Symbolic Significance of Agricultural Practice
While livestock rearing contributes to livelihood security for farmers in southern
Africa in non-drought times, it can increase farmers’ vulnerability during extended
periods of low rainfall. Overstocking places more pressure on food and water
resources and may cause increased land degradation. Drought can also cause animals to die, a major financial loss for farmers. One farmer explained, “we used to
use animals to plough the field but those animals died in the drought last year and
the year before” (Farmer 10).
But even farmers who have previously experienced losses still choose to keep
livestock in the face of drought. The reasons for this reluctance are many: low market prices, collapse of markets, a lack of access to markets and a poor understanding
of the reasons to sell (Speranza 2010; Togarepi et al. 2016). In some cases, however,
a failure to sell is linked to the symbolic significance of livestock (Doran et al. 1979;
Hegga et al. 2016; Stroebel et al. 2008). In Namibia, cattle are often perceived as a
direct measure of affluence, status, prestige and security. Livestock rearing is used
16 Considering Religion and Tradition in Climate Smart Agriculture: Insights…