Application of X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy in Materials …
429
To enhance the functionality of XPS instrument, it can also be operated in other
modes, such as:
(1) UPS mode to gain information about band gap, valence band and conduction band positions, work function, etc.—UPS mode is used with ultra-violet
light to excite electrons. As these photons can only be used to excite valence
electrons, it can be used to calculate work function, Fermi level, etc. Yadav
et al. prepared β-gallium oxide (Ga 2 O 3 ) films on Si (100) substrate at varying
annealing temperatures [42]. They used UPS attached with XPS to calculate
work function, valence band maxima and Fermi level position for samples
prepared in different conditions to optimise the fabrication parameters to be
used in designing optoelectronic devices.
(2) Auger electron spectroscopy: to capture Auger electrons;
(3) Elemental mapping: to map different elements and identify their locations;
(4) Ion beam etching: to clean the surface of materials to remove any adsorbed
organic compounds or oxygen molecules. It can also be used of measure the
thickness of multi-layered materials.
2 Conclusion
In this article, we tried to give a brief overview about the different applications of
XPS for energy conversion and environmental remediation. XPS is a technique which
can effectively determine the surface nature of the nanomaterials which otherwise
would have been very difficult to capture. The components and compositions in the
surface layers of the energy materials could be effectively analysed using XPS and
thus proves to be an important tool for energy research. Similarly, for photocatalysis,
environmental degradation of pollutants, study the kinetics of photocatalysis, XPS
is found to be an effective tool and has a huge scope for future research.
References
1. G. Greczynski, L. Hultman, Prog. Mater. Sci. 107, 100591 (2020)
2. R. Kaushik, P. Vineeth Daniel, P. Mondal, and A. Halder, Microporous Mesoporous Mater.
285, 32 (2019)
3. R. Kaushik, P.K. Samal, A. Halder, A.C.S. Appl, Nano Mater. 2, 7898 (2019)
4. Z. Zhang, L. Chen, Z. Li, P. Li, F. Yuan, X. Niu, Y. Zhu, Catal. Sci. Technol. 6, 7151 (2016)
5. A. Mathur, A. Halder, Catal. Sci. Technol. 9, 1245 (2019)
6. M. Saquib, R. Kaushik, A. Halder, Chem. Select. 5, 6376 (2020)
7. M. Ren, J. Bao, P. Wang, C. Wang, Y. Ao, Front. Chem. 6, 1 (2018)
8. P.K. Samal, L. Sharma, A. Halder, J. Appl. Phys. 127, 194902 (2020)
9. L. Sharma, H. S. Khushwaha, A. Mathur, A. Halder, J. Solid State Chem. 265, 208 (2018)
10. C. Xu, A. Vasileff, B. Jin, D. Wang, H. Xu, Y. Zheng, S. Qiao, Chem. Commun. 56, 11275
(2020)
11. A. Mathur, R. Kaushik, A. Halder, Catal. Sci. Technol. (2020)
429
To enhance the functionality of XPS instrument, it can also be operated in other
modes, such as:
(1) UPS mode to gain information about band gap, valence band and conduction band positions, work function, etc.—UPS mode is used with ultra-violet
light to excite electrons. As these photons can only be used to excite valence
electrons, it can be used to calculate work function, Fermi level, etc. Yadav
et al. prepared β-gallium oxide (Ga 2 O 3 ) films on Si (100) substrate at varying
annealing temperatures [42]. They used UPS attached with XPS to calculate
work function, valence band maxima and Fermi level position for samples
prepared in different conditions to optimise the fabrication parameters to be
used in designing optoelectronic devices.
(2) Auger electron spectroscopy: to capture Auger electrons;
(3) Elemental mapping: to map different elements and identify their locations;
(4) Ion beam etching: to clean the surface of materials to remove any adsorbed
organic compounds or oxygen molecules. It can also be used of measure the
thickness of multi-layered materials.
2 Conclusion
In this article, we tried to give a brief overview about the different applications of
XPS for energy conversion and environmental remediation. XPS is a technique which
can effectively determine the surface nature of the nanomaterials which otherwise
would have been very difficult to capture. The components and compositions in the
surface layers of the energy materials could be effectively analysed using XPS and
thus proves to be an important tool for energy research. Similarly, for photocatalysis,
environmental degradation of pollutants, study the kinetics of photocatalysis, XPS
is found to be an effective tool and has a huge scope for future research.
References
1. G. Greczynski, L. Hultman, Prog. Mater. Sci. 107, 100591 (2020)
2. R. Kaushik, P. Vineeth Daniel, P. Mondal, and A. Halder, Microporous Mesoporous Mater.
285, 32 (2019)
3. R. Kaushik, P.K. Samal, A. Halder, A.C.S. Appl, Nano Mater. 2, 7898 (2019)
4. Z. Zhang, L. Chen, Z. Li, P. Li, F. Yuan, X. Niu, Y. Zhu, Catal. Sci. Technol. 6, 7151 (2016)
5. A. Mathur, A. Halder, Catal. Sci. Technol. 9, 1245 (2019)
6. M. Saquib, R. Kaushik, A. Halder, Chem. Select. 5, 6376 (2020)
7. M. Ren, J. Bao, P. Wang, C. Wang, Y. Ao, Front. Chem. 6, 1 (2018)
8. P.K. Samal, L. Sharma, A. Halder, J. Appl. Phys. 127, 194902 (2020)
9. L. Sharma, H. S. Khushwaha, A. Mathur, A. Halder, J. Solid State Chem. 265, 208 (2018)
10. C. Xu, A. Vasileff, B. Jin, D. Wang, H. Xu, Y. Zheng, S. Qiao, Chem. Commun. 56, 11275
(2020)
11. A. Mathur, R. Kaushik, A. Halder, Catal. Sci. Technol. (2020)