189
has an intensity of just 0.00018 kg CO 2 /kWh, and in Norway the intensity is 0.013 kg
CO 2 /kWh, compared to the EU average of 0.35 kgCO 2 /kWh (DEFRA et al. 2014 ).
The construction of housing also, of course, affects the carbon footprint. For
example, in the UK, much of the housing stock is hard to insulate adequately at
reasonable costs (Hong et al. 2006 ) and hence occupiers of these dwellings tend to
have relatively high carbon footprints. Also the control systems installed, such as
thermostats, affect carbon footprints (Tukker et al. 2010 ).
The carbon emissions embedded in food products generally forms a substantial
portion of a carbon footprint (see Sect. 3.2 ), in particular when analysed in terms of
greenhouse gas emissions instead of carbon dioxide only (Dey et al. 2003 ; Nijdam
et al. 2005 ; Tukker and Jansen 2006 ; Druckman and Jackson 2009 , 2010 ). The type
of diet has a high impact on this. In general, vegetarians and consumers who eat
locally harvested seasonal food tend to have lower per capita environmental impacts
from food consumption than individuals who rely on more traditional diets (Garnett
2013 ; Tukker et al. 2010 ).
Education has also been found to play a role in determining household carbon
emissions, with high education being signifi cant and positively related to emissions
once income is controlled for (Baiocchi et al. 2010 ; Buchs and Schnepf 2013 ).
Baiocchi et al. ( 2010 ) interpret this as support for justifi cation for environmental
education campaigns.
Other factors that infl uence household carbon footprints include social and cultural differences. This includes how people use their household control systems
(Wood and Newborough 2007 ), whether, for example, it is the social norm to wear
a jersey indoors during cold weather (Druckman et al. 2011b ; Shove 2012 ), and the
prevalence of a ‘throwaway’, consumerist culture, as opposed to a more thrifty way
of living (Cooper 2010 ).
3.2 Composition of Household Carbon Footprints
In this sub-section, we look in more detail at the composition of average household
carbon footprints of Western households. Generally the categories of transportation,
housing and food make the largest contributions (Jones and Kammen 2011 ; Caeiro
et al. 2012 ; Tukker 2006 ; Tukker and Jansen 2006 ). For example, Benders et al.
( 2012 ) found that these three domains account for nearly three quarters of carbon
emissions and inclusion of the next largest category, recreation, accounted for around
85 % of average carbon footprints in The Netherlands. Jones and Kammen ( 2011 )
(see Fig. 9.3 ) assessed carbon emissions of an average US household in fi ve main
categories, with further sub-divisions and also making a distinction between direct
and indirect emissions (blue and green in Fig. 9.3 , respectively). While supporting the
general fi ndings that the broad categories of transportation, housing and food make up
the majority of emissions, their analysis found that direct emissions from motor fuels
was the largest sub-category, at around 20 % of the total, with electricity consumption
coming next (15 %), followed by emissions due to meat consumption (5 %).
9 Understanding Households as Drivers of Carbon Emissions
has an intensity of just 0.00018 kg CO 2 /kWh, and in Norway the intensity is 0.013 kg
CO 2 /kWh, compared to the EU average of 0.35 kgCO 2 /kWh (DEFRA et al. 2014 ).
The construction of housing also, of course, affects the carbon footprint. For
example, in the UK, much of the housing stock is hard to insulate adequately at
reasonable costs (Hong et al. 2006 ) and hence occupiers of these dwellings tend to
have relatively high carbon footprints. Also the control systems installed, such as
thermostats, affect carbon footprints (Tukker et al. 2010 ).
The carbon emissions embedded in food products generally forms a substantial
portion of a carbon footprint (see Sect. 3.2 ), in particular when analysed in terms of
greenhouse gas emissions instead of carbon dioxide only (Dey et al. 2003 ; Nijdam
et al. 2005 ; Tukker and Jansen 2006 ; Druckman and Jackson 2009 , 2010 ). The type
of diet has a high impact on this. In general, vegetarians and consumers who eat
locally harvested seasonal food tend to have lower per capita environmental impacts
from food consumption than individuals who rely on more traditional diets (Garnett
2013 ; Tukker et al. 2010 ).
Education has also been found to play a role in determining household carbon
emissions, with high education being signifi cant and positively related to emissions
once income is controlled for (Baiocchi et al. 2010 ; Buchs and Schnepf 2013 ).
Baiocchi et al. ( 2010 ) interpret this as support for justifi cation for environmental
education campaigns.
Other factors that infl uence household carbon footprints include social and cultural differences. This includes how people use their household control systems
(Wood and Newborough 2007 ), whether, for example, it is the social norm to wear
a jersey indoors during cold weather (Druckman et al. 2011b ; Shove 2012 ), and the
prevalence of a ‘throwaway’, consumerist culture, as opposed to a more thrifty way
of living (Cooper 2010 ).
3.2 Composition of Household Carbon Footprints
In this sub-section, we look in more detail at the composition of average household
carbon footprints of Western households. Generally the categories of transportation,
housing and food make the largest contributions (Jones and Kammen 2011 ; Caeiro
et al. 2012 ; Tukker 2006 ; Tukker and Jansen 2006 ). For example, Benders et al.
( 2012 ) found that these three domains account for nearly three quarters of carbon
emissions and inclusion of the next largest category, recreation, accounted for around
85 % of average carbon footprints in The Netherlands. Jones and Kammen ( 2011 )
(see Fig. 9.3 ) assessed carbon emissions of an average US household in fi ve main
categories, with further sub-divisions and also making a distinction between direct
and indirect emissions (blue and green in Fig. 9.3 , respectively). While supporting the
general fi ndings that the broad categories of transportation, housing and food make up
the majority of emissions, their analysis found that direct emissions from motor fuels
was the largest sub-category, at around 20 % of the total, with electricity consumption
coming next (15 %), followed by emissions due to meat consumption (5 %).
9 Understanding Households as Drivers of Carbon Emissions