66
2010). Also low ammonium concentrations and low salinities that can be found in estuaries can lead to enhanced toxin
production in Alexandrium sp. (Hamasaki et al. 2001).
Because of the damages HABs may cause, their detection
and prediction is an on-going scientific challenge, which is
approached with different techniques, such as molecular
methods, chromatographic pigment analysis, optical spectroscopy, and remote sensing (Millie et al. 1997; John et al.
2005; Trainer et al. 2009). Automated monitoring showed
promising predictions (Campbell et al. 2010). Besides establishing a monitoring network, Wells et al. (2015) suggested
parameters for routine measurements, including physical
parameters, nutrient concentrations, phytoplankton identification, and toxin concentrations.
Linking the effects of climate change with changes in
global HAB occurrence and developing monitoring strategies has been the subject of many studies up to date (e.g.,
Edwards et al. 2006; Moore et al. 2008; Hallegraeff 2010;
Hinder et al. 2012; Kudela et al. 2017).
Conclusions
Phytoplankton are a very diverse and important player in the
ocean due to their many roles in different marine cycles.
Phytoplankton are highly dependent on a diversity of nutrients and influenced by physical and chemical properties in
the ocean. Anthropogenic influences on the climate will
change these conditions. Some of these effects are global,
some remain regional. As diverse as these effects can be,
changes to phytoplankton communities will occur as well.
One of these examples are harmful algae blooms, which are
a hot topic regarding ecological impacts. Another example
are possible shifts of ecological niches, which influence the
whole marine food web. When predicting such changes, a
solid data base is crucial. A wide range of methods targeting
different parameters are just as crucial as obtaining data over
a long time period.
Seasonal variations in community shifts and changes of
the cell morphology show, that phytoplankton adapt to
changing environmental conditions regularly. Some of these
seasonally observed changes can be extrapolated to future
scenarios.
Climate change related conditions in the ocean will
change phytoplankton composition and adaption, as they
will have to deal with differing nutrient and trace metal bioavailability, physical conditions or temperatures. However,
blooms triggered by such conditions can have an opposite
effect by influencing the climate themselves.
Apart from species composition, cell physiology is
another important aspect that can be changed by climate.
Chemicals produced by phytoplankton, such as toxins, can
have vast ecological impacts and are one of the most pressing topics when predicting phytoplankton changes.
In conclusion, phytoplankton are an important connecting
element within the sensitive marine system. Therefore, accurate predictions are difficult to make, but the existing methods and models are a good way to improve the local
understanding. In addition, new models and different
approaches looking at factor interactions shall give new and
better insights.
Appendix
This article is related to the YOUMARES 8 conference session no. 10: “Phytoplankton in a Changing Environment –
Adaptation Mechanisms and Ecological Surveys”. The
original Call for Abstracts and the abstracts of the presentations within this session can be found in the appendix
“Conference
Sessions
and
Abstracts”,
chapter
“4 Phytoplankton in a Changing Environment – Adaptation
Mechanisms and Ecological Surveys”, of this book.
References
Adl SM, Simpson AGB, Farmer MA et al (2005) The new higher
level classification of eukaryotes with emphasis on the taxonomy of protists. J Eukaryot Microbiol 52:399–451. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.2005.00053.x
Adl SM, Simpson AG, Lane CE et al (2012) The revised classification of eukaryotes. J Eukaryot Microbiol 59:429–493. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.2012.00644.x
Andersen RA (2004) Biology and systematics of Heterokont and haptophyte algae. Am J Bot 91:1508–1522. https://doi.org/10.3732/
ajb.91.10.1508
Arrigo KR, van Dijken GL (2015) Continued increases in Arctic
Ocean primary production. Prog Oceanogr 136:60–70. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.pocean.2015.05.002
Arrigo KR, Robinson DH, Worthen DL et al (1999) Phytoplankton
community structure and the drawdown of nutrients and CO 2 in
the Southern Ocean. Science 283:365–367. https://doi.org/10.1126/
science.283.5400.365
Arrigo KR, Perovich DK, Pickart RS et al (2012) Massive phytoplankton blooms under Arctic Sea ice. Science 336:1408. https://doi.
org/10.1126/science.1215065
Arrigo KR, van Dijken GL, Castelao RM et al (2017) Melting glaciers stimulate large summer phytoplankton blooms in Southwest
Greenland waters. Geophys Res Lett 44:6278–6285. https://doi.
org/10.1002/2017GL073583
Azam F (1998) Microbial control of oceanic carbon flux: the
plot thickens. Science 280:694–696. https://doi.org/10.1126/
science.280.5364.694
Baines SB, Pace ML (1991) The production of dissolved organic matter by phytoplankton and its importance to bacteria: patterns across
marine and freshwater systems. Limnol Oceanogr 36:1078–1090.
https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.1991.36.6.1078
Bakker DCE, Watson AJ, Law CS (2001) Southern Ocean iron
enrichment promotes inorganic carbon drawdown. Deep Res Pt II
48:2483–2507. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0967-0645(01)00005-4
L. Käse and J. K. Geuer
2010). Also low ammonium concentrations and low salinities that can be found in estuaries can lead to enhanced toxin
production in Alexandrium sp. (Hamasaki et al. 2001).
Because of the damages HABs may cause, their detection
and prediction is an on-going scientific challenge, which is
approached with different techniques, such as molecular
methods, chromatographic pigment analysis, optical spectroscopy, and remote sensing (Millie et al. 1997; John et al.
2005; Trainer et al. 2009). Automated monitoring showed
promising predictions (Campbell et al. 2010). Besides establishing a monitoring network, Wells et al. (2015) suggested
parameters for routine measurements, including physical
parameters, nutrient concentrations, phytoplankton identification, and toxin concentrations.
Linking the effects of climate change with changes in
global HAB occurrence and developing monitoring strategies has been the subject of many studies up to date (e.g.,
Edwards et al. 2006; Moore et al. 2008; Hallegraeff 2010;
Hinder et al. 2012; Kudela et al. 2017).
Conclusions
Phytoplankton are a very diverse and important player in the
ocean due to their many roles in different marine cycles.
Phytoplankton are highly dependent on a diversity of nutrients and influenced by physical and chemical properties in
the ocean. Anthropogenic influences on the climate will
change these conditions. Some of these effects are global,
some remain regional. As diverse as these effects can be,
changes to phytoplankton communities will occur as well.
One of these examples are harmful algae blooms, which are
a hot topic regarding ecological impacts. Another example
are possible shifts of ecological niches, which influence the
whole marine food web. When predicting such changes, a
solid data base is crucial. A wide range of methods targeting
different parameters are just as crucial as obtaining data over
a long time period.
Seasonal variations in community shifts and changes of
the cell morphology show, that phytoplankton adapt to
changing environmental conditions regularly. Some of these
seasonally observed changes can be extrapolated to future
scenarios.
Climate change related conditions in the ocean will
change phytoplankton composition and adaption, as they
will have to deal with differing nutrient and trace metal bioavailability, physical conditions or temperatures. However,
blooms triggered by such conditions can have an opposite
effect by influencing the climate themselves.
Apart from species composition, cell physiology is
another important aspect that can be changed by climate.
Chemicals produced by phytoplankton, such as toxins, can
have vast ecological impacts and are one of the most pressing topics when predicting phytoplankton changes.
In conclusion, phytoplankton are an important connecting
element within the sensitive marine system. Therefore, accurate predictions are difficult to make, but the existing methods and models are a good way to improve the local
understanding. In addition, new models and different
approaches looking at factor interactions shall give new and
better insights.
Appendix
This article is related to the YOUMARES 8 conference session no. 10: “Phytoplankton in a Changing Environment –
Adaptation Mechanisms and Ecological Surveys”. The
original Call for Abstracts and the abstracts of the presentations within this session can be found in the appendix
“Conference
Sessions
and
Abstracts”,
chapter
“4 Phytoplankton in a Changing Environment – Adaptation
Mechanisms and Ecological Surveys”, of this book.
References
Adl SM, Simpson AGB, Farmer MA et al (2005) The new higher
level classification of eukaryotes with emphasis on the taxonomy of protists. J Eukaryot Microbiol 52:399–451. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.2005.00053.x
Adl SM, Simpson AG, Lane CE et al (2012) The revised classification of eukaryotes. J Eukaryot Microbiol 59:429–493. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.2012.00644.x
Andersen RA (2004) Biology and systematics of Heterokont and haptophyte algae. Am J Bot 91:1508–1522. https://doi.org/10.3732/
ajb.91.10.1508
Arrigo KR, van Dijken GL (2015) Continued increases in Arctic
Ocean primary production. Prog Oceanogr 136:60–70. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.pocean.2015.05.002
Arrigo KR, Robinson DH, Worthen DL et al (1999) Phytoplankton
community structure and the drawdown of nutrients and CO 2 in
the Southern Ocean. Science 283:365–367. https://doi.org/10.1126/
science.283.5400.365
Arrigo KR, Perovich DK, Pickart RS et al (2012) Massive phytoplankton blooms under Arctic Sea ice. Science 336:1408. https://doi.
org/10.1126/science.1215065
Arrigo KR, van Dijken GL, Castelao RM et al (2017) Melting glaciers stimulate large summer phytoplankton blooms in Southwest
Greenland waters. Geophys Res Lett 44:6278–6285. https://doi.
org/10.1002/2017GL073583
Azam F (1998) Microbial control of oceanic carbon flux: the
plot thickens. Science 280:694–696. https://doi.org/10.1126/
science.280.5364.694
Baines SB, Pace ML (1991) The production of dissolved organic matter by phytoplankton and its importance to bacteria: patterns across
marine and freshwater systems. Limnol Oceanogr 36:1078–1090.
https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.1991.36.6.1078
Bakker DCE, Watson AJ, Law CS (2001) Southern Ocean iron
enrichment promotes inorganic carbon drawdown. Deep Res Pt II
48:2483–2507. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0967-0645(01)00005-4
L. Käse and J. K. Geuer