23
Richter I, Xie SP (2008) On the origin of equatorial Atlantic biases
in coupled general circulation models. Clim Dyn 31(5):587–598.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-008-0364-z
Richter I, Xie SP, Wittenberg AT et al (2012) Tropical Atlantic biases
and their relation to surface wind stress and terrestrial precipitation. Clim Dyn 38(5–6):985–1001. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s00382-011-1038-9
Richter I, Behera SK, Masumoto Y et al (2013) Multiple causes of interannual sea surface temperature variability in the equatorial Atlantic
Ocean. Nat Geosci 6(1):43–47. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1660
Richter I, Behera SK, Doi T et al (2014a) What controls equatorial
Atlantic winds in boreal spring? Clim Dyn 43(11):3091–3104.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-014-2170-0
Richter I, Xie SP, Behera SK et al (2014b) Equatorial Atlantic variability and its relation to mean state biases in CMIP5. Clim Dyn
42(1–2):171–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-012-1624-5
Richter I, Xie SP, Morioka Y et al (2016) Phase locking of equatorial Atlantic variability through the seasonal migration of the
ITCZ. Clim Dyn 48(11–12):3615–3629. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s00382-016-3289-y
Richter I, Doi T, Behera SK et al (2017) On the link between mean state
biases and prediction skill in the tropics: an atmospheric perspective.
Clim Dyn 50:3355. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-017-3809-4
Risien CM, Chelton DB (2008) A global climatology of surface
wind and wind stress fields from eight years of QuikSCAT scatterometer data. J Phys Oceanogr 38(11):2379–2413. https://doi.
org/10.1175/2008JPO3881.1
Rodríguez-Fonseca B, Janicot S, Mohino E et al (2011) Interannual and
decadal SST-forced responses of the West African monsoon. Atmos
Sci Lett 12(1):67–74. https://doi.org/10.1002/asl.308
Roeckner E, Bäuml G, Bonaventura L et al (2003) The atmospheric
general circulation model ECHAM5: part 1: model description.
MPI Report 349. https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD014036
Roemmich D, Johnson GC, Riser S et al (2009) The Argo program. Oceanography 22(2):34–43. https://doi.org/10.5670/
oceanog.2009.36
Schott FA, Dengler M, Brandt P et al (2003) The zonal currents and
transports at 35°W in the tropical Atlantic. Geophys Res Lett
30(7):1349. https://doi.org/10.1029/2002GL016849
Sein DV, Danilov S, Biastoch A et al (2016) Designing variable
ocean model resolution based on the observed ocean variability. J Adv Model Earth Syst 8(2):904–916. https://doi.
org/10.1002/2016MS000650
Seo H, Jochum M, Murtugudde R et al (2006) Effect of ocean mesoscale
variability on the mean state of tropical Atlantic climate. Geophys
Res Lett 33(9):L09606. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL025651
Siongco AC, Hohenegger C, Stevens B (2015) The Atlantic ITCZ
bias in CMIP5 models. Clim Dyn 45(5):1169–1180. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s00382-014-2366-3
Stockdale TN, Balmaseda MA, Vidard A (2006) Tropical Atlantic
SST prediction with coupled ocean-atmosphere GCMs. J Clim
19(23):6047–6061. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI3947.1
Sutton RT, Jewson SP, Rowell DP (2000) The elements of climate variability in the tropical Atlantic region. J Clim 13(18):3261–3284
Taylor KE, Stouffer RJ, Meehl GA (2012) An overview of CMIP5
and the experiment design. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 93(4):485–498.
https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00094.1
Tozuka T, Doi T, Miyasaka T et al (2011) Key factors in simulating
the equatorial Atlantic zonal sea surface temperature gradient
in a coupled general circulation model. J Geophys Res Oceans
116(6):C06010. https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JC006717
Trenberth KE, Caron JM (2001) Estimates of meridional atmosphere
and ocean heat transports. J Clim 14(16):3433–3443
Trenberth KE, Fasullo JT, Kiehl J (2009) Earth’s global energy budget.
Bull Am Meteorol Soc 90(3):311–323. https://doi.org/10.1175/200
8BAMS2634.1
Voldoire A, Claudon M, Caniaux G et al (2014) Are atmospheric
biases responsible for the tropical Atlantic SST biases in the
CNRM-CM5 coupled model? Clim Dyn 43(11):2963–2984. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s00382-013-2036-x
Wahl S, Latif M, Park W et al (2011) On the tropical Atlantic SST warm
bias in the Kiel climate model. Clim Dyn 36(5–6):891–906. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s00382-009-0690-9
Wang F, Chang P (2008) Coupled variability and predictability in a stochastic climate model of the tropical Atlantic. J Clim 21(23):6247–
6259. https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JCLI2283.1
Xie SP (2004) The shape of continents, air-sea interaction, and the
rising branch of the Hadley circulation. In: Diaz HF, Bradley RS
(eds) The Hadley circulation: present, past and future. Springer,
Dordrecht, pp 121–152
Xie P, Arkin PA (1997) Global precipitation: a 17-year monthly analysis based on gauge observations, satellite estimates, and numerical
model outputs. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 78(11):2539–2558. https://
doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078<2539:GPAYMA>2.0.CO;2
Xie SP, Carton JA (2004) Tropical Atlantic variability: patterns,
mechanisms, and impacts. In: Wang C, Xie SP, Carton JA (eds)
Earth’s climate: the ocean-atmosphere interaction. American
Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp 121–142. https://doi.
org/10.1029/147GM07
Xie SP, Philander SGH (1994) A coupled ocean-atmosphere model of
relevance to the ITCZ in the eastern Pacific. Tellus A 46(4):340–
350. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0870.1994.t01-1-00001.x
Xu Z, Chang P, Richter I et al (2014) Diagnosing southeast tropical Atlantic SST and ocean circulation biases in the CMIP5
ensemble. Clim Dyn 43(11):3123–3145. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s00382-014-2247-9
Zebiak SE (1993) Air-sea interaction in the equatorial Atlantic region.
J Clim 6(8):1567–1586
Zermeño-Diaz DM, Zhang C (2013) Possible root causes of surface westerly biases over the equatorial Atlantic in global climate models. J Clim 26(20):8154–8168. https://doi.org/10.1175/
JCLI-D-12-00226.1
Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give
appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link
to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this chapter are included
in the chapter’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise
in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter’s
Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by
statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to
obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.
Can Climate Models Simulate the Observed Strong Summer Surface Cooling in the Equatorial Atlantic?
Richter I, Xie SP (2008) On the origin of equatorial Atlantic biases
in coupled general circulation models. Clim Dyn 31(5):587–598.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-008-0364-z
Richter I, Xie SP, Wittenberg AT et al (2012) Tropical Atlantic biases
and their relation to surface wind stress and terrestrial precipitation. Clim Dyn 38(5–6):985–1001. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s00382-011-1038-9
Richter I, Behera SK, Masumoto Y et al (2013) Multiple causes of interannual sea surface temperature variability in the equatorial Atlantic
Ocean. Nat Geosci 6(1):43–47. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1660
Richter I, Behera SK, Doi T et al (2014a) What controls equatorial
Atlantic winds in boreal spring? Clim Dyn 43(11):3091–3104.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-014-2170-0
Richter I, Xie SP, Behera SK et al (2014b) Equatorial Atlantic variability and its relation to mean state biases in CMIP5. Clim Dyn
42(1–2):171–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-012-1624-5
Richter I, Xie SP, Morioka Y et al (2016) Phase locking of equatorial Atlantic variability through the seasonal migration of the
ITCZ. Clim Dyn 48(11–12):3615–3629. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s00382-016-3289-y
Richter I, Doi T, Behera SK et al (2017) On the link between mean state
biases and prediction skill in the tropics: an atmospheric perspective.
Clim Dyn 50:3355. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-017-3809-4
Risien CM, Chelton DB (2008) A global climatology of surface
wind and wind stress fields from eight years of QuikSCAT scatterometer data. J Phys Oceanogr 38(11):2379–2413. https://doi.
org/10.1175/2008JPO3881.1
Rodríguez-Fonseca B, Janicot S, Mohino E et al (2011) Interannual and
decadal SST-forced responses of the West African monsoon. Atmos
Sci Lett 12(1):67–74. https://doi.org/10.1002/asl.308
Roeckner E, Bäuml G, Bonaventura L et al (2003) The atmospheric
general circulation model ECHAM5: part 1: model description.
MPI Report 349. https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD014036
Roemmich D, Johnson GC, Riser S et al (2009) The Argo program. Oceanography 22(2):34–43. https://doi.org/10.5670/
oceanog.2009.36
Schott FA, Dengler M, Brandt P et al (2003) The zonal currents and
transports at 35°W in the tropical Atlantic. Geophys Res Lett
30(7):1349. https://doi.org/10.1029/2002GL016849
Sein DV, Danilov S, Biastoch A et al (2016) Designing variable
ocean model resolution based on the observed ocean variability. J Adv Model Earth Syst 8(2):904–916. https://doi.
org/10.1002/2016MS000650
Seo H, Jochum M, Murtugudde R et al (2006) Effect of ocean mesoscale
variability on the mean state of tropical Atlantic climate. Geophys
Res Lett 33(9):L09606. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL025651
Siongco AC, Hohenegger C, Stevens B (2015) The Atlantic ITCZ
bias in CMIP5 models. Clim Dyn 45(5):1169–1180. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s00382-014-2366-3
Stockdale TN, Balmaseda MA, Vidard A (2006) Tropical Atlantic
SST prediction with coupled ocean-atmosphere GCMs. J Clim
19(23):6047–6061. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI3947.1
Sutton RT, Jewson SP, Rowell DP (2000) The elements of climate variability in the tropical Atlantic region. J Clim 13(18):3261–3284
Taylor KE, Stouffer RJ, Meehl GA (2012) An overview of CMIP5
and the experiment design. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 93(4):485–498.
https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00094.1
Tozuka T, Doi T, Miyasaka T et al (2011) Key factors in simulating
the equatorial Atlantic zonal sea surface temperature gradient
in a coupled general circulation model. J Geophys Res Oceans
116(6):C06010. https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JC006717
Trenberth KE, Caron JM (2001) Estimates of meridional atmosphere
and ocean heat transports. J Clim 14(16):3433–3443
Trenberth KE, Fasullo JT, Kiehl J (2009) Earth’s global energy budget.
Bull Am Meteorol Soc 90(3):311–323. https://doi.org/10.1175/200
8BAMS2634.1
Voldoire A, Claudon M, Caniaux G et al (2014) Are atmospheric
biases responsible for the tropical Atlantic SST biases in the
CNRM-CM5 coupled model? Clim Dyn 43(11):2963–2984. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s00382-013-2036-x
Wahl S, Latif M, Park W et al (2011) On the tropical Atlantic SST warm
bias in the Kiel climate model. Clim Dyn 36(5–6):891–906. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s00382-009-0690-9
Wang F, Chang P (2008) Coupled variability and predictability in a stochastic climate model of the tropical Atlantic. J Clim 21(23):6247–
6259. https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JCLI2283.1
Xie SP (2004) The shape of continents, air-sea interaction, and the
rising branch of the Hadley circulation. In: Diaz HF, Bradley RS
(eds) The Hadley circulation: present, past and future. Springer,
Dordrecht, pp 121–152
Xie P, Arkin PA (1997) Global precipitation: a 17-year monthly analysis based on gauge observations, satellite estimates, and numerical
model outputs. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 78(11):2539–2558. https://
doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078<2539:GPAYMA>2.0.CO;2
Xie SP, Carton JA (2004) Tropical Atlantic variability: patterns,
mechanisms, and impacts. In: Wang C, Xie SP, Carton JA (eds)
Earth’s climate: the ocean-atmosphere interaction. American
Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp 121–142. https://doi.
org/10.1029/147GM07
Xie SP, Philander SGH (1994) A coupled ocean-atmosphere model of
relevance to the ITCZ in the eastern Pacific. Tellus A 46(4):340–
350. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0870.1994.t01-1-00001.x
Xu Z, Chang P, Richter I et al (2014) Diagnosing southeast tropical Atlantic SST and ocean circulation biases in the CMIP5
ensemble. Clim Dyn 43(11):3123–3145. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s00382-014-2247-9
Zebiak SE (1993) Air-sea interaction in the equatorial Atlantic region.
J Clim 6(8):1567–1586
Zermeño-Diaz DM, Zhang C (2013) Possible root causes of surface westerly biases over the equatorial Atlantic in global climate models. J Clim 26(20):8154–8168. https://doi.org/10.1175/
JCLI-D-12-00226.1
Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give
appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link
to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this chapter are included
in the chapter’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise
in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter’s
Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by
statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to
obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.
Can Climate Models Simulate the Observed Strong Summer Surface Cooling in the Equatorial Atlantic?