22
Fretwell P, Pritchard HD, Vaughan DG et al (2013) Bedmap2: improved
ice bed, surface and thickness datasets for Antarctica. Cryosphere
7(1):375–393. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-375-2013
Frierson DMW, Hwang YT, Fučkar NS et al (2013) Contribution of
ocean overturning circulation to tropical rainfall peak in the northern hemisphere. Nat Geosci 6:940–944. https://doi.org/10.1038/
ngeo1987
García-Serrano J, Losada T, Rodríguez-Fonseca B et al (2008) Tropical
Atlantic variability modes (1979–2002). Part II: time-evolving
atmospheric circulation related to SST-forced tropical convection.
J Clim 21(24):6476–6497. https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JCLI2191.1
Giannini A, Saravanan R, Chang P (2003) Oceanic forcing of Sahel
rainfall on interannual to interdecadal time scales. Science
302(5647):1027–1030. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1089357
Gill AE (1980) Some simple solutions for heat-induced tropical circulation. Q J R Meteorol Soc 106(449):447–462. https://doi.
org/10.1002/qj.49710644905
Grodsky SA, Carton JA, McClain CR (2008) Variability of upwelling and chlorophyll in the equatorial Atlantic. Geophys Res Lett
35(3):L03610. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL032466
Grodsky SA, Carton JA, Nigam S et al (2012) Tropical Atlantic biases
in CCSM4. J Clim 25(11):3684–3701. https://doi.org/10.1175/
JCLI-D-11-00315.1
Harlaß J, Latif M, Park W (2015) Improving climate model simulation of tropical Atlantic sea surface temperature: the importance of
enhanced vertical atmosphere model resolution. Geophys Res Lett
42(7):2401–2408. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL063310
Harlaß J, Latif M, Park W (2017) Alleviating tropical Atlantic sector
biases in the Kiel climate model by enhancing horizontal and vertical
atmosphere model resolution: climatology and interannual variability. Clim Dyn 50:2605. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-017-3760-4
Hastenrath S (1991) Climate dynamics of the tropics. Springer,
Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-3156-8
Hazeleger W, Haarsma RJ (2005) Sensitivity of tropical Atlantic climate to mixing in a coupled ocean-atmosphere model. Clim Dyn
25(4):387–399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-005-0047-y
Hormann V, Brandt P (2009) Upper equatorial Atlantic variability during 2002 and 2005 associated with equatorial Kelvin
waves. J Geophys Res Oceans 114:C03007. https://doi.
org/10.1029/2008JC005101
Hummels R, Dengler M, Bourlès B (2013) Seasonal and regional
variability of upper ocean diapycnal heat flux in the Atlantic cold
tongue. Prog Oceanogr 111:52–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
pocean.2012.11.001
Hummels R, Dengler M, Brandt P et al (2014) Diapycnal heat flux and
mixed layer heat budget within the Atlantic cold tongue. Clim Dyn
43(11):3179–3199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-014-2339-6
Jin FF (1997) An equatorial ocean recharge paradigm for ENSO. Part I:
conceptual model. J Atmos Sci 54(7):811–829
Johns WE, Brandt P, Bourlès B et al (2014) Zonal structure and seasonal variability of the Atlantic equatorial undercurrent. Clim Dyn
43(11):3047–3069. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-014-2136-2
Jouanno J, Marin F, Du Penhoat Y et al (2011) Seasonal heat balance
in the upper 100 m of the equatorial Atlantic Ocean. J Geophys Res
Oceans 116(9):C09003. https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JC006912
Keenlyside NS, Latif M (2007) Understanding equatorial Atlantic interannual variability. J Clim 20(1):131–142. https://doi.org/10.1175/
JCLI3992.1
Liu H, Wang C, Lee SK et al (2013) Atlantic warm pool variability
in the CMIP5 simulations. J Clim 26(15):5315–5336. https://doi.
org/10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00556.1
Locarnini RA, Mishonov AV, Antonov JI et al (2013) World ocean atlas
2013. Vol. 1: Temperature. Levitus S (ed), Mishonov A (technical
ed), NOAA Atlas NESDIS 73
Lübbecke JF, McPhaden MJ (2012) On the inconsistent relationship
between Pacific and Atlantic Niños. J Clim 25(12):4294–4303.
https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00553.1
Lübbecke JF, McPhaden MJ (2017) Symmetry of the Atlantic
Niño mode. Geophys Res Lett 44(2):965–973. https://doi.
org/10.1002/2016GL071829
Lübbecke JF, Böning CW, Keenlyside NS et al (2010) On the connection between Benguela and equatorial Atlantic Niños and the
role of the South Atlantic anticyclone. J Geophys Res Oceans
115(C9):C09015. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JC005964
Lübbecke JF, Burls NJ, Reason CJC et al (2014) Variability in the
South Atlantic anticyclone and the Atlantic Niño mode. J Clim
27(21):8135–8150. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00202.1
Madec G (2008) NEMO ocean general circulation model reference
manuel. Tech. rep., Institut Pierre-Simon Laplace, Paris
Marin F, Caniaux G, Giordani H et al (2009) Why were sea surface
temperatures so different in the eastern equatorial Atlantic in June
2005 and 2006? J Phys Oceanogr 39(6):1416–1431. https://doi.
org/10.1175/2008JPO4030.1
McPhaden MJ (1995) The tropical atmosphere ocean array is completed. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 76:739–741
McPhaden MJ, Meyers G, Ando K et al (2009) RAMA: the research
moored Array for African-Asian-Australian monsoon analysis and
prediction. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 90(4):459–480. https://doi.org/1
0.1175/2008BAMS2608.1
Meehl GA, Covey C, Taylor KE et al (2007) THE WCRP CMIP3
multimodel dataset: a new era in climate change research. Bull
Am Meteorol Soc 88(9):1383–1394. https://doi.org/10.1175/
BAMS-88-9-1383
Merle J (1980) Seasonal heat budget in the equatorial Atlantic ocean.
J Phys Oceanogr 10(3):464–469
Mitchell TP, Wallace JM (1992) The annual cycle in equatorial convection and sea surface temperature. J Clim 5(10):1140–1156
Nnamchi HC, Li J, Kucharski F et al (2015) Thermodynamic controls
of the Atlantic Niño. Nat Commun 6:8895. https://doi.org/10.1038/
ncomms9895
Nnamchi HC, Li J, Kucharski F et al (2016) An equatorial-extratropical
dipole structure of the Atlantic Niño. J Clim 29(20):7295–7311.
https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0894.1
Okumura Y, Xie SP (2004) Interaction of the Atlantic equatorial cold
tongue and the African monsoon. J Clim 17(18):3589–3602. https://
doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2004)017<3589:IOTAEC>2.0.CO;2
Okumura Y, Xie SP (2006) Some overlooked features of tropical
Atlantic climate leading to a new Nino-like phenomenon. J Clim
19(22):5859–5874
Park W, Keenlyside N, Latif M et al (2009) Tropical Pacific climate and
its response to global warming in the Kiel climate model. J Clim
22(1):71–92. https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JCLI2261.1
Patricola CM, Li M, Xu Z et al (2012) An investigation of tropical Atlantic bias in a high-resolution coupled regional climate
model. Clim Dyn 39(9):2443–2463. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s00382-012-1320-5
Philander SGH, Pacanowski RC (1981) The oceanic response to crossequatorial winds (with application to coastal upwelling in low
latitudes). Tellus 33(2):201–210. https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.
v33i2.10708
Phillips NA (1956) The general circulation of the atmosphere: a numerical experiment. Q J R Meteorol Soc 82(352):123–164. https://doi.
org/10.1002/qj.49708235202
Polo I, Rodríguez-Fonseca B, Losada T et al (2008) Tropical Atlantic
variability modes (1979–2002). Part I: time-evolving SST modes
related to West African rainfall. J Clim 21(24):6457–6475. https://
doi.org/10.1175/2008JCLI2607.1
Reynolds RW, Smith TM, Liu C et al (2007) Daily high-resolutionblended analyses for sea surface temperature. J Clim 20(22):5473–
5496. https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JCLI1824.1
Rhein M, Dengler M, Sültenfuß J et al (2010) Upwelling and associated
heat flux in the equatorial Atlantic inferred from helium isotope disequilibrium. J Geophys Res Oceans 115(C8):C08021. https://doi.
org/10.1029/2009JC005772
T. Dippe et al.
Fretwell P, Pritchard HD, Vaughan DG et al (2013) Bedmap2: improved
ice bed, surface and thickness datasets for Antarctica. Cryosphere
7(1):375–393. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-375-2013
Frierson DMW, Hwang YT, Fučkar NS et al (2013) Contribution of
ocean overturning circulation to tropical rainfall peak in the northern hemisphere. Nat Geosci 6:940–944. https://doi.org/10.1038/
ngeo1987
García-Serrano J, Losada T, Rodríguez-Fonseca B et al (2008) Tropical
Atlantic variability modes (1979–2002). Part II: time-evolving
atmospheric circulation related to SST-forced tropical convection.
J Clim 21(24):6476–6497. https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JCLI2191.1
Giannini A, Saravanan R, Chang P (2003) Oceanic forcing of Sahel
rainfall on interannual to interdecadal time scales. Science
302(5647):1027–1030. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1089357
Gill AE (1980) Some simple solutions for heat-induced tropical circulation. Q J R Meteorol Soc 106(449):447–462. https://doi.
org/10.1002/qj.49710644905
Grodsky SA, Carton JA, McClain CR (2008) Variability of upwelling and chlorophyll in the equatorial Atlantic. Geophys Res Lett
35(3):L03610. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL032466
Grodsky SA, Carton JA, Nigam S et al (2012) Tropical Atlantic biases
in CCSM4. J Clim 25(11):3684–3701. https://doi.org/10.1175/
JCLI-D-11-00315.1
Harlaß J, Latif M, Park W (2015) Improving climate model simulation of tropical Atlantic sea surface temperature: the importance of
enhanced vertical atmosphere model resolution. Geophys Res Lett
42(7):2401–2408. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL063310
Harlaß J, Latif M, Park W (2017) Alleviating tropical Atlantic sector
biases in the Kiel climate model by enhancing horizontal and vertical
atmosphere model resolution: climatology and interannual variability. Clim Dyn 50:2605. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-017-3760-4
Hastenrath S (1991) Climate dynamics of the tropics. Springer,
Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-3156-8
Hazeleger W, Haarsma RJ (2005) Sensitivity of tropical Atlantic climate to mixing in a coupled ocean-atmosphere model. Clim Dyn
25(4):387–399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-005-0047-y
Hormann V, Brandt P (2009) Upper equatorial Atlantic variability during 2002 and 2005 associated with equatorial Kelvin
waves. J Geophys Res Oceans 114:C03007. https://doi.
org/10.1029/2008JC005101
Hummels R, Dengler M, Bourlès B (2013) Seasonal and regional
variability of upper ocean diapycnal heat flux in the Atlantic cold
tongue. Prog Oceanogr 111:52–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
pocean.2012.11.001
Hummels R, Dengler M, Brandt P et al (2014) Diapycnal heat flux and
mixed layer heat budget within the Atlantic cold tongue. Clim Dyn
43(11):3179–3199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-014-2339-6
Jin FF (1997) An equatorial ocean recharge paradigm for ENSO. Part I:
conceptual model. J Atmos Sci 54(7):811–829
Johns WE, Brandt P, Bourlès B et al (2014) Zonal structure and seasonal variability of the Atlantic equatorial undercurrent. Clim Dyn
43(11):3047–3069. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-014-2136-2
Jouanno J, Marin F, Du Penhoat Y et al (2011) Seasonal heat balance
in the upper 100 m of the equatorial Atlantic Ocean. J Geophys Res
Oceans 116(9):C09003. https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JC006912
Keenlyside NS, Latif M (2007) Understanding equatorial Atlantic interannual variability. J Clim 20(1):131–142. https://doi.org/10.1175/
JCLI3992.1
Liu H, Wang C, Lee SK et al (2013) Atlantic warm pool variability
in the CMIP5 simulations. J Clim 26(15):5315–5336. https://doi.
org/10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00556.1
Locarnini RA, Mishonov AV, Antonov JI et al (2013) World ocean atlas
2013. Vol. 1: Temperature. Levitus S (ed), Mishonov A (technical
ed), NOAA Atlas NESDIS 73
Lübbecke JF, McPhaden MJ (2012) On the inconsistent relationship
between Pacific and Atlantic Niños. J Clim 25(12):4294–4303.
https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00553.1
Lübbecke JF, McPhaden MJ (2017) Symmetry of the Atlantic
Niño mode. Geophys Res Lett 44(2):965–973. https://doi.
org/10.1002/2016GL071829
Lübbecke JF, Böning CW, Keenlyside NS et al (2010) On the connection between Benguela and equatorial Atlantic Niños and the
role of the South Atlantic anticyclone. J Geophys Res Oceans
115(C9):C09015. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JC005964
Lübbecke JF, Burls NJ, Reason CJC et al (2014) Variability in the
South Atlantic anticyclone and the Atlantic Niño mode. J Clim
27(21):8135–8150. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00202.1
Madec G (2008) NEMO ocean general circulation model reference
manuel. Tech. rep., Institut Pierre-Simon Laplace, Paris
Marin F, Caniaux G, Giordani H et al (2009) Why were sea surface
temperatures so different in the eastern equatorial Atlantic in June
2005 and 2006? J Phys Oceanogr 39(6):1416–1431. https://doi.
org/10.1175/2008JPO4030.1
McPhaden MJ (1995) The tropical atmosphere ocean array is completed. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 76:739–741
McPhaden MJ, Meyers G, Ando K et al (2009) RAMA: the research
moored Array for African-Asian-Australian monsoon analysis and
prediction. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 90(4):459–480. https://doi.org/1
0.1175/2008BAMS2608.1
Meehl GA, Covey C, Taylor KE et al (2007) THE WCRP CMIP3
multimodel dataset: a new era in climate change research. Bull
Am Meteorol Soc 88(9):1383–1394. https://doi.org/10.1175/
BAMS-88-9-1383
Merle J (1980) Seasonal heat budget in the equatorial Atlantic ocean.
J Phys Oceanogr 10(3):464–469
Mitchell TP, Wallace JM (1992) The annual cycle in equatorial convection and sea surface temperature. J Clim 5(10):1140–1156
Nnamchi HC, Li J, Kucharski F et al (2015) Thermodynamic controls
of the Atlantic Niño. Nat Commun 6:8895. https://doi.org/10.1038/
ncomms9895
Nnamchi HC, Li J, Kucharski F et al (2016) An equatorial-extratropical
dipole structure of the Atlantic Niño. J Clim 29(20):7295–7311.
https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0894.1
Okumura Y, Xie SP (2004) Interaction of the Atlantic equatorial cold
tongue and the African monsoon. J Clim 17(18):3589–3602. https://
doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2004)017<3589:IOTAEC>2.0.CO;2
Okumura Y, Xie SP (2006) Some overlooked features of tropical
Atlantic climate leading to a new Nino-like phenomenon. J Clim
19(22):5859–5874
Park W, Keenlyside N, Latif M et al (2009) Tropical Pacific climate and
its response to global warming in the Kiel climate model. J Clim
22(1):71–92. https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JCLI2261.1
Patricola CM, Li M, Xu Z et al (2012) An investigation of tropical Atlantic bias in a high-resolution coupled regional climate
model. Clim Dyn 39(9):2443–2463. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s00382-012-1320-5
Philander SGH, Pacanowski RC (1981) The oceanic response to crossequatorial winds (with application to coastal upwelling in low
latitudes). Tellus 33(2):201–210. https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.
v33i2.10708
Phillips NA (1956) The general circulation of the atmosphere: a numerical experiment. Q J R Meteorol Soc 82(352):123–164. https://doi.
org/10.1002/qj.49708235202
Polo I, Rodríguez-Fonseca B, Losada T et al (2008) Tropical Atlantic
variability modes (1979–2002). Part I: time-evolving SST modes
related to West African rainfall. J Clim 21(24):6457–6475. https://
doi.org/10.1175/2008JCLI2607.1
Reynolds RW, Smith TM, Liu C et al (2007) Daily high-resolutionblended analyses for sea surface temperature. J Clim 20(22):5473–
5496. https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JCLI1824.1
Rhein M, Dengler M, Sültenfuß J et al (2010) Upwelling and associated
heat flux in the equatorial Atlantic inferred from helium isotope disequilibrium. J Geophys Res Oceans 115(C8):C08021. https://doi.
org/10.1029/2009JC005772
T. Dippe et al.