119
Future Implications in Light of Climate
Change
Future studies should consider marine invasions in light of
changing climate conditions. As sea level rises, how will it
influence the expansion of NIS ranges? If bodies of water are
connected by larger channels and increased water flow, how
will this impact the spread of future invasions? Will prone to
acclimatizing NIS thrive, when new areas of land sink
beneath the rising oceans?
Educating the public on marine NIS is an important step
towards keeping invasions in check. The ocean is large and
looking out at it from on land, it can seem undisturbed and
peaceful. Beneath the surface, however, NIS are thriving
under rocks and floating through the water column as microscopic plankton. Using molecular genetic techniques, we can
first study the past and use it to understand how established
NIS came to be. Through further monitoring, we can keep
invasions in check and observe, whether new invasions are
underway. Finally, by carefully predicting climatic conditions of the future, we can hypothesize about the course of
future marine invasions and begin to plan future management campaigns in light of global climate change.
Climate change is expected to impact aquatic invasions
by warming water temperatures, altering water flow patterns,
and increasing storm events (Poff et al. 2002). Aquatic systems that are naturally saline will likely increase in salinity,
though, whether this will necessarily allow marine species to
invade inland waters is still largely unknown (Rahel and
Olden 2008). Climate change will also result in physiological changes, which will become apparent at the population
level and as seen by shifts in abundance, timing of annually
recurring events and distribution and dispersion of organisms
(Doney et al. 2012). For example, invasive ectotherms have a
greater ability to acclimate their thermal tolerance and can
achieve a higher upper thermal tolerance threshold than
native ectotherms (Kelley 2014). As Occhipinti-Ambrogi
(2007) highlights, the range expansions of populations of
NIS has already been observed to be coupled with increasing
water temperatures. The Mediterranean Sea has witnessed
the establishment of alien microalgae species, an increase
that is largely attributed to increased water temperatures
(Gómez and Claustre 2003). Other microalgae, whose spread
is also thought to be linked to increasing water temperatures,
has impacted human health. The NIS Ostreopsis cf. ovata,
which bloomed in the Ligurian sea, caused respiratory illness in tourists exposed to it (Brescianini et al. 2006; Durando
et al. 2007; Vila et al. 2016).
One of the most comprehensive models for predicting the
fate of marine invasions found that overall there would be a
high species turnover rate attributed to invasions and extinctions by the mid-21
st
century. In considering the distributional ranges of 1,066 marine fish and invertebrates for
2050 in a bioclimate envelope model, Cheung et al. (2009)
found that patterns of species invasion as well as turnover
(accounting for invading and locally extinct species) were
predicted in high latitude regions of the Arctic and Southern
Ocean and that, combined with global extinctions, invasions
and extinctions will amount to a turnover of 60% of the present biodiversity. The potential disruptions in ecosystem services in the future based on this model remain yet to be
known. With a growing world population and in light of a
changing global climate, studies are needed to better understand how marine invasions will further impact our environment and economy, and how managers can better prepare for
future invasions.
Acknowledgements The authors thank A. Zenetos and an anonymous
reviewer for their comments, which greatly improved the manuscript.
Appendix
This article is related to the YOUMARES 8 conference session no. 11: “How Do They Do It? – Understanding the
Success of Marine Invasive Species”. The original Call for
Abstracts and the abstracts of the presentations within this
session can be found in the appendix “Conference sessions
and Abstracts”, chapter “7 How Do They Do It? –
Understanding the Success of Marine Invasive Species”, of
this book.
References
Abt Associates Inc (2008) Ecological and economic impacts and
invasion management strategies for the European Green Crab.
Cambridge, MA
Altieri AH, Irving AD (2017) Species coexistence and the superior ability of an invasive species to exploit a facilitation cascade habitat.
Peer J 5:e2848. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2848
Anderson JA, Epifanio CE (2009) Induction of metamorphosis in the
Asian shore crab Hemigrapsus sanguineus: characterization of the
cue associated with biofilm from adult habitat. J Exp Mar Bio Ecol
382:34–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2009.10.006
Anderson JA, Epifanio CE (2010) Mating and sperm storage of the
Asian shore crab Hemigrapsus sanguineus. J Shellfish Res 29:497–
501. https://doi.org/10.2983/035.029.0228
Barnes DKA, Milner P (2005) Drifting plastic and its consequences for
sessile organism dispersal in the Atlantic Ocean. Mar Biol 146:815–
825. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-004-1474-8
Bax NJ (1999) Eradicating a dreissenid from Australia. Dreissena!
10:1–5
Bax NJ, Hayes K, Marshall A et al (2000) Man-made marinas as sheltered islands for alien marine organisms: establishment and eradication of an alien invasive marine species. In: Veitch CR, Clout MN
How Do They Do It? – Understanding the Success of Marine Invasive Species
Future Implications in Light of Climate
Change
Future studies should consider marine invasions in light of
changing climate conditions. As sea level rises, how will it
influence the expansion of NIS ranges? If bodies of water are
connected by larger channels and increased water flow, how
will this impact the spread of future invasions? Will prone to
acclimatizing NIS thrive, when new areas of land sink
beneath the rising oceans?
Educating the public on marine NIS is an important step
towards keeping invasions in check. The ocean is large and
looking out at it from on land, it can seem undisturbed and
peaceful. Beneath the surface, however, NIS are thriving
under rocks and floating through the water column as microscopic plankton. Using molecular genetic techniques, we can
first study the past and use it to understand how established
NIS came to be. Through further monitoring, we can keep
invasions in check and observe, whether new invasions are
underway. Finally, by carefully predicting climatic conditions of the future, we can hypothesize about the course of
future marine invasions and begin to plan future management campaigns in light of global climate change.
Climate change is expected to impact aquatic invasions
by warming water temperatures, altering water flow patterns,
and increasing storm events (Poff et al. 2002). Aquatic systems that are naturally saline will likely increase in salinity,
though, whether this will necessarily allow marine species to
invade inland waters is still largely unknown (Rahel and
Olden 2008). Climate change will also result in physiological changes, which will become apparent at the population
level and as seen by shifts in abundance, timing of annually
recurring events and distribution and dispersion of organisms
(Doney et al. 2012). For example, invasive ectotherms have a
greater ability to acclimate their thermal tolerance and can
achieve a higher upper thermal tolerance threshold than
native ectotherms (Kelley 2014). As Occhipinti-Ambrogi
(2007) highlights, the range expansions of populations of
NIS has already been observed to be coupled with increasing
water temperatures. The Mediterranean Sea has witnessed
the establishment of alien microalgae species, an increase
that is largely attributed to increased water temperatures
(Gómez and Claustre 2003). Other microalgae, whose spread
is also thought to be linked to increasing water temperatures,
has impacted human health. The NIS Ostreopsis cf. ovata,
which bloomed in the Ligurian sea, caused respiratory illness in tourists exposed to it (Brescianini et al. 2006; Durando
et al. 2007; Vila et al. 2016).
One of the most comprehensive models for predicting the
fate of marine invasions found that overall there would be a
high species turnover rate attributed to invasions and extinctions by the mid-21
st
century. In considering the distributional ranges of 1,066 marine fish and invertebrates for
2050 in a bioclimate envelope model, Cheung et al. (2009)
found that patterns of species invasion as well as turnover
(accounting for invading and locally extinct species) were
predicted in high latitude regions of the Arctic and Southern
Ocean and that, combined with global extinctions, invasions
and extinctions will amount to a turnover of 60% of the present biodiversity. The potential disruptions in ecosystem services in the future based on this model remain yet to be
known. With a growing world population and in light of a
changing global climate, studies are needed to better understand how marine invasions will further impact our environment and economy, and how managers can better prepare for
future invasions.
Acknowledgements The authors thank A. Zenetos and an anonymous
reviewer for their comments, which greatly improved the manuscript.
Appendix
This article is related to the YOUMARES 8 conference session no. 11: “How Do They Do It? – Understanding the
Success of Marine Invasive Species”. The original Call for
Abstracts and the abstracts of the presentations within this
session can be found in the appendix “Conference sessions
and Abstracts”, chapter “7 How Do They Do It? –
Understanding the Success of Marine Invasive Species”, of
this book.
References
Abt Associates Inc (2008) Ecological and economic impacts and
invasion management strategies for the European Green Crab.
Cambridge, MA
Altieri AH, Irving AD (2017) Species coexistence and the superior ability of an invasive species to exploit a facilitation cascade habitat.
Peer J 5:e2848. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2848
Anderson JA, Epifanio CE (2009) Induction of metamorphosis in the
Asian shore crab Hemigrapsus sanguineus: characterization of the
cue associated with biofilm from adult habitat. J Exp Mar Bio Ecol
382:34–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2009.10.006
Anderson JA, Epifanio CE (2010) Mating and sperm storage of the
Asian shore crab Hemigrapsus sanguineus. J Shellfish Res 29:497–
501. https://doi.org/10.2983/035.029.0228
Barnes DKA, Milner P (2005) Drifting plastic and its consequences for
sessile organism dispersal in the Atlantic Ocean. Mar Biol 146:815–
825. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-004-1474-8
Bax NJ (1999) Eradicating a dreissenid from Australia. Dreissena!
10:1–5
Bax NJ, Hayes K, Marshall A et al (2000) Man-made marinas as sheltered islands for alien marine organisms: establishment and eradication of an alien invasive marine species. In: Veitch CR, Clout MN
How Do They Do It? – Understanding the Success of Marine Invasive Species