108
ing measures and being an agenda-setter and conceptual pioneer and the latter as a
powerful and adaptive legislator. It must be underlined though that this relates to
policies for PCB, one of the most infamous pollutants in the world, and generalisations cannot be made to effect and effectiveness for chemicals policy at large. On
the contrary, it can be concluded that the regulatory response even in this notorious
case has been far from rapid.
5.4 The Second Generation, Brominated Organic
Substances: PBDEs
A second group of industrial organohalogens is the brominated, and within this
group, not least fl ame retardants and particularly polybrominated diphenyl ethers
(PBDEs) have been much discussed since at least the 1980s. Brominated fl ame
retardants (BFRs) have been frequently used since the 1950s as additives in plastic
polymers in, for example, textiles and electric and electronic products. Since PBDEs
generally are persistent and bioaccumulative , they have increasingly been detected
in wildlife, humans and the wider global environment since the 1980s (Birnbaum
and Staskal 2004 ; Law et al. 2006 ; Nyberg et al. 2013a ; de Wit 2002 ). There are still
knowledge gaps when it comes to the specifi c properties and risks of most BFRs.
However, so-called lower brominated
9 PBDEs have since long been shown widespread in ecosystems, including in the Baltic Sea environment (Airaksinen et al.
2014 ; Szlinder-Richert et al. 2010 ), and are known to negatively affect hormone,
reproductive and neurological systems in mammals (Birnbaum and Staskal 2004 ;
Darnerud et al. 2001 ; Eriksson et al. 2001 , 2002 ; Ilonka et al. 2000 ). More recent
studies have shown great concerns regarding human health effects as well (Eskenazi
et al. 2013 ; Herbstman et al. 2010 ; Ward et al. 2014 ). Higher brominated PBDEs,
such as decaBDE , were initially not considered as problematic, and many industry
stakeholders in fact claimed that decaBDE did not bioaccumulate due to the molecule’s comparatively large size (ECB 2002 ). But this was falsifi ed when Lindberg
et al. ( 2004 ) showed the presence of decaBDE in eggs of the peregrine falcon. Other
studies have pointed out that decaBDE can degrade in the environment to lower
brominated PBDEs (Gerecke et al. 2005 ; Stapleton et al. 2004 ).
5.4.1 EU Policy
Scientifi c fi ndings from the 1980s and onwards did not lead to any potential risk
mitigating measures in the EU until the mid-1990s when some BFRs were placed
on so-called priority lists for risk assessment of existing substances (EEC 1993 ).
9 PBDEs with not more than fi ve bromine atoms, such as pentaBDE.
M. Karlsson and M. Gilek
ing measures and being an agenda-setter and conceptual pioneer and the latter as a
powerful and adaptive legislator. It must be underlined though that this relates to
policies for PCB, one of the most infamous pollutants in the world, and generalisations cannot be made to effect and effectiveness for chemicals policy at large. On
the contrary, it can be concluded that the regulatory response even in this notorious
case has been far from rapid.
5.4 The Second Generation, Brominated Organic
Substances: PBDEs
A second group of industrial organohalogens is the brominated, and within this
group, not least fl ame retardants and particularly polybrominated diphenyl ethers
(PBDEs) have been much discussed since at least the 1980s. Brominated fl ame
retardants (BFRs) have been frequently used since the 1950s as additives in plastic
polymers in, for example, textiles and electric and electronic products. Since PBDEs
generally are persistent and bioaccumulative , they have increasingly been detected
in wildlife, humans and the wider global environment since the 1980s (Birnbaum
and Staskal 2004 ; Law et al. 2006 ; Nyberg et al. 2013a ; de Wit 2002 ). There are still
knowledge gaps when it comes to the specifi c properties and risks of most BFRs.
However, so-called lower brominated
9 PBDEs have since long been shown widespread in ecosystems, including in the Baltic Sea environment (Airaksinen et al.
2014 ; Szlinder-Richert et al. 2010 ), and are known to negatively affect hormone,
reproductive and neurological systems in mammals (Birnbaum and Staskal 2004 ;
Darnerud et al. 2001 ; Eriksson et al. 2001 , 2002 ; Ilonka et al. 2000 ). More recent
studies have shown great concerns regarding human health effects as well (Eskenazi
et al. 2013 ; Herbstman et al. 2010 ; Ward et al. 2014 ). Higher brominated PBDEs,
such as decaBDE , were initially not considered as problematic, and many industry
stakeholders in fact claimed that decaBDE did not bioaccumulate due to the molecule’s comparatively large size (ECB 2002 ). But this was falsifi ed when Lindberg
et al. ( 2004 ) showed the presence of decaBDE in eggs of the peregrine falcon. Other
studies have pointed out that decaBDE can degrade in the environment to lower
brominated PBDEs (Gerecke et al. 2005 ; Stapleton et al. 2004 ).
5.4.1 EU Policy
Scientifi c fi ndings from the 1980s and onwards did not lead to any potential risk
mitigating measures in the EU until the mid-1990s when some BFRs were placed
on so-called priority lists for risk assessment of existing substances (EEC 1993 ).
9 PBDEs with not more than fi ve bromine atoms, such as pentaBDE.
M. Karlsson and M. Gilek