106
target to continuously reduce discharges, emissions and losses of hazardous substances towards cessation by 2020, so as to reach background values for naturally
occurring substances and close to zero concentrations for man-made substances
(HELCOM 1998 ). By then, 280 substances were listed as ‘potential substances of
concern’, of which 43 were prioritised for ‘immediate action’, including PCBs .
Compared to previous agreements that focused on upstream measures, the starting
point here was environmental quality and close to zero tolerance for pollution .
The PCB problems remained in the 2000s, and a new Recommendation (25/1)
on PCBs was adopted, superseding a previous one (6/1), with updated calls on the
Parties and further specifi cations on measures relating to, for example, destruction
and decontamination (HELCOM 2004 ). In the 2007 Baltic Sea Action Plan, 11 of
the most problematic substances, including dioxin -like PCBs, were listed as being
of ‘specifi c concern’ to the Baltic Sea, and for these, ecosystem-based targets have
been developed in order to reach the objective of a ‘life undisturbed by hazardous
substances’.
Finally, also the broad 1998 Recommendation (19/5) was replaced in 2010 with
a new general Recommendation (31E/1) on ‘Implementing HELCOM’s objectives
for hazardous substances’ (HELCOM 2010c ). Here, the attached guiding principles, defi nitions and strategy were updated and modernised. For instance, there are
explicit references to both the EU REACH Regulation and the UN Global
Harmonised System for classifi cation and labelling of chemicals. The precautionary
elements are more obvious, including a defi nition (and linked to priority setting and
mitigating measures) of ‘hazardous’ to include substances that are very persistent
and very bioaccumulative (i.e. without necessarily being toxic ). PCBs are among
the listed priority substances.
5.3.3 Analysis of Measures Taken and Approaches Applied
Due to the various regulatory initiatives, PCB concentrations in the Baltic Sea
marine environment have decreased substantially over time, even though they have
stabilised at levels that still are signifi cantly above those of pre-industrial era. The
populations of some of the wildlife species that previously were seriously threatened such as the three Baltic Sea seal species and the white-tailed eagle have consequently increased.
7 However, according to HELCOM, the general situation is still
considered as ‘moderate or bad’ (Boalt et al. 2013 ), and the objective to reach an
environment with levels of man-made substances close to zero is far from achieved,
also with respect to PCBs . For example, the 1988 goal to half discharges of the most
harmful substances by 1995 had by 2001 only been achieved for less than two-thirds
of the substances on the list. However, the target had been achieved for PCBs (Selin
and VanDeveer 2004 ). Moreover, despite precautionary measures taken, the total
remediation and waste management costs for PCBs continue to be very high. In
7 In the case of the white-tailed eagle, artifi cial feeding for three to four decades played a key role
in preventing national or regional extinction.
M. Karlsson and M. Gilek
target to continuously reduce discharges, emissions and losses of hazardous substances towards cessation by 2020, so as to reach background values for naturally
occurring substances and close to zero concentrations for man-made substances
(HELCOM 1998 ). By then, 280 substances were listed as ‘potential substances of
concern’, of which 43 were prioritised for ‘immediate action’, including PCBs .
Compared to previous agreements that focused on upstream measures, the starting
point here was environmental quality and close to zero tolerance for pollution .
The PCB problems remained in the 2000s, and a new Recommendation (25/1)
on PCBs was adopted, superseding a previous one (6/1), with updated calls on the
Parties and further specifi cations on measures relating to, for example, destruction
and decontamination (HELCOM 2004 ). In the 2007 Baltic Sea Action Plan, 11 of
the most problematic substances, including dioxin -like PCBs, were listed as being
of ‘specifi c concern’ to the Baltic Sea, and for these, ecosystem-based targets have
been developed in order to reach the objective of a ‘life undisturbed by hazardous
substances’.
Finally, also the broad 1998 Recommendation (19/5) was replaced in 2010 with
a new general Recommendation (31E/1) on ‘Implementing HELCOM’s objectives
for hazardous substances’ (HELCOM 2010c ). Here, the attached guiding principles, defi nitions and strategy were updated and modernised. For instance, there are
explicit references to both the EU REACH Regulation and the UN Global
Harmonised System for classifi cation and labelling of chemicals. The precautionary
elements are more obvious, including a defi nition (and linked to priority setting and
mitigating measures) of ‘hazardous’ to include substances that are very persistent
and very bioaccumulative (i.e. without necessarily being toxic ). PCBs are among
the listed priority substances.
5.3.3 Analysis of Measures Taken and Approaches Applied
Due to the various regulatory initiatives, PCB concentrations in the Baltic Sea
marine environment have decreased substantially over time, even though they have
stabilised at levels that still are signifi cantly above those of pre-industrial era. The
populations of some of the wildlife species that previously were seriously threatened such as the three Baltic Sea seal species and the white-tailed eagle have consequently increased.
7 However, according to HELCOM, the general situation is still
considered as ‘moderate or bad’ (Boalt et al. 2013 ), and the objective to reach an
environment with levels of man-made substances close to zero is far from achieved,
also with respect to PCBs . For example, the 1988 goal to half discharges of the most
harmful substances by 1995 had by 2001 only been achieved for less than two-thirds
of the substances on the list. However, the target had been achieved for PCBs (Selin
and VanDeveer 2004 ). Moreover, despite precautionary measures taken, the total
remediation and waste management costs for PCBs continue to be very high. In
7 In the case of the white-tailed eagle, artifi cial feeding for three to four decades played a key role
in preventing national or regional extinction.
M. Karlsson and M. Gilek