128
M. Gautam and M. Agrawal
tion, cultural norms, economic development, energy sources, and climatic conditions
[34]. High-income nations have higher consumption of inorganic supplies (such as
plastics, laminated paper, glass, and metals); hence have high generation of inorganic/recyclable waste. While, low to middle income countries have high organic
fraction in MSW, i.e., 40–85% compared with 28% in high-income countries [34].
Climate of the region also influences the composition of the wastes [34]. Precipitation and humidity play crucial role in waste composition, particularly when measured
by mass because of absorption of moisture from the atmosphere [34]. Waste of dry
region has low moisture content and vice versa. For an instance, [68] showed that
in Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, 33.6% by weight and 16.7% by volume of MSW
were generated in winter, and 22.8% by weight and 7.8% by volume in summer.
Physical properties of MSW show density, volatile solid, ash, and moisture content
in the range of 65–480 kg/m
3 , 69–86%, 0–68%, and 2–91%, respectively (Table 3).
Chemical properties such as electrical conductivity, pH, contents of carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, sulfur, chlorine, organic carbon, organic nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, C/N ratio, fixed residue, and calorific value of MSW from different countries
are presented in Table 3. Chemical composition of MSW in West Bengal exhibited
high moisture, ash, and inorganic contents, while contents of nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium were relatively low [74].
Tremendous generation of MSW has creating and likely to create a massive
problem in upcoming future. Improper management of MSW has severe negative
consequences on the environment as well as human health [75]. The disintegration
of waste into harmful chemical constituents is a common source of environmental
pollution and is severe mainly in developing nations. Severe negative consequences
of MSW disposal were described in various cities of different countries such as China
[10], India [80], Malaysia [51], and Thailand [11]. Poor management of MSW has
become an inevitable challenge for governments of many Asian and African countries
[24].
Management of MSW generally involves segregation at source point, door-to-door
collection, transportation, storage, segregation at storage house into biodegradable
and nondegradable wastes (plastics, metals and glass), material recycling, anaerobic digestion and composting of organic wastes, incineration/thermal treatment
for waste-to-energy recovery and finally the residues are disposed at landfill sites.
However, the above-mentioned sequence of waste management varies with countries, states, and cities. Figure 3 shows percentage contribution of various treatment
processes in waste management globally [34]. Furthermore, Fig. 4 depicts the MSW
treatment contribution by various countries across the world. In developed countries,
wastes management is strictly complied with the norms, regulations, and policies of
IPCC and EPA. While, the developing countries like China, India, South Africa,
Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh, etc., are yet to be in strict alignment with the IPCC
and EPA protocols. In these regions, currently more than 50% of the waste is openly
dumped and the waste growth curves are likely to have vast insinuations for the
environment, health, and prosperity, which necessitate a quick call for appropriate
and urgent actions.
M. Gautam and M. Agrawal
tion, cultural norms, economic development, energy sources, and climatic conditions
[34]. High-income nations have higher consumption of inorganic supplies (such as
plastics, laminated paper, glass, and metals); hence have high generation of inorganic/recyclable waste. While, low to middle income countries have high organic
fraction in MSW, i.e., 40–85% compared with 28% in high-income countries [34].
Climate of the region also influences the composition of the wastes [34]. Precipitation and humidity play crucial role in waste composition, particularly when measured
by mass because of absorption of moisture from the atmosphere [34]. Waste of dry
region has low moisture content and vice versa. For an instance, [68] showed that
in Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, 33.6% by weight and 16.7% by volume of MSW
were generated in winter, and 22.8% by weight and 7.8% by volume in summer.
Physical properties of MSW show density, volatile solid, ash, and moisture content
in the range of 65–480 kg/m
3 , 69–86%, 0–68%, and 2–91%, respectively (Table 3).
Chemical properties such as electrical conductivity, pH, contents of carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, sulfur, chlorine, organic carbon, organic nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, C/N ratio, fixed residue, and calorific value of MSW from different countries
are presented in Table 3. Chemical composition of MSW in West Bengal exhibited
high moisture, ash, and inorganic contents, while contents of nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium were relatively low [74].
Tremendous generation of MSW has creating and likely to create a massive
problem in upcoming future. Improper management of MSW has severe negative
consequences on the environment as well as human health [75]. The disintegration
of waste into harmful chemical constituents is a common source of environmental
pollution and is severe mainly in developing nations. Severe negative consequences
of MSW disposal were described in various cities of different countries such as China
[10], India [80], Malaysia [51], and Thailand [11]. Poor management of MSW has
become an inevitable challenge for governments of many Asian and African countries
[24].
Management of MSW generally involves segregation at source point, door-to-door
collection, transportation, storage, segregation at storage house into biodegradable
and nondegradable wastes (plastics, metals and glass), material recycling, anaerobic digestion and composting of organic wastes, incineration/thermal treatment
for waste-to-energy recovery and finally the residues are disposed at landfill sites.
However, the above-mentioned sequence of waste management varies with countries, states, and cities. Figure 3 shows percentage contribution of various treatment
processes in waste management globally [34]. Furthermore, Fig. 4 depicts the MSW
treatment contribution by various countries across the world. In developed countries,
wastes management is strictly complied with the norms, regulations, and policies of
IPCC and EPA. While, the developing countries like China, India, South Africa,
Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh, etc., are yet to be in strict alignment with the IPCC
and EPA protocols. In these regions, currently more than 50% of the waste is openly
dumped and the waste growth curves are likely to have vast insinuations for the
environment, health, and prosperity, which necessitate a quick call for appropriate
and urgent actions.