9 Knowledge Exchange at Science-Policy Interfaces …
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9.4.6 Type 6: Formal and Informal Knowledge Exchange
The “formal and informal knowledge exchange” knowledge exchange type describes
the formality of knowledge exchange. On the one hand, it describes in which setting
(formal, informal) the other types of knowledge exchange in this typology take
place. On the other hand, the subtypes can also represent themselves (e.g. informal
knowledge exchange at conferences). It is important to note that we do not see
“formal” and “informal” knowledge exchange as two completely separated types
of knowledge exchange, but rather as extremes along a continuum. Knowledge
exchange is a complex phenomenon, and often consists of multiple interactions
between actors; for this reason, the formality of an exchange can change over time,
e.g. informal exchange can lead to a project that is regulated by a formal agreement.
This knowledge exchange type appears in two subtypes.
Type 6.1: Informal knowledge exchange. This occurs when actors exchange
knowledge with other actors in an informal setting. This may include unofficial parts
of meetings or conferences, as well as informal workshops organised by public agencies to stimulate creative and open exchange between policymakers and scientists in
a confidential setting.
These networks are especially important before projects are formulated, when
actors informally exchange information with their counterparts about problems they
observe, about knowledge needs they have or about possible solutions they perceive.
The second subtype is 6.2: Formal knowledge exchange. This describes knowledge exchange that is embedded in formal structures and processes. For example,
this subtype includes meetings organised by public agencies to gain insights on the
opinions of different actors concerning a particular topic. Such meetings are designed
in the formal style of a consultation, where the statements of the invited actors are
written down and the course of the meeting is rather predetermined. However, this
subtype also embraces formal calls for proposals and knowledge exchange that is
regulated by agreements that define the tasks and duties of two contracting parties.
9.5 Barriers to and Opportunities for Knowledge Exchange
in Spatial Planning, Land Use and Soil Management
in Switzerland
Based on the interviews, we identified 11 “barriers” to and five “opportunities” for
knowledge exchange (Tables 9.1 and 9.2). “Barriers” refer to factors that constrain
knowledge exchange, while “opportunities” refer to factors that improve knowledge
exchange. Basically, both barriers and opportunities are crucial factors influencing
knowledge exchange. Obviously, barriers can turn into opportunities, and vice versa.
175
9.4.6 Type 6: Formal and Informal Knowledge Exchange
The “formal and informal knowledge exchange” knowledge exchange type describes
the formality of knowledge exchange. On the one hand, it describes in which setting
(formal, informal) the other types of knowledge exchange in this typology take
place. On the other hand, the subtypes can also represent themselves (e.g. informal
knowledge exchange at conferences). It is important to note that we do not see
“formal” and “informal” knowledge exchange as two completely separated types
of knowledge exchange, but rather as extremes along a continuum. Knowledge
exchange is a complex phenomenon, and often consists of multiple interactions
between actors; for this reason, the formality of an exchange can change over time,
e.g. informal exchange can lead to a project that is regulated by a formal agreement.
This knowledge exchange type appears in two subtypes.
Type 6.1: Informal knowledge exchange. This occurs when actors exchange
knowledge with other actors in an informal setting. This may include unofficial parts
of meetings or conferences, as well as informal workshops organised by public agencies to stimulate creative and open exchange between policymakers and scientists in
a confidential setting.
These networks are especially important before projects are formulated, when
actors informally exchange information with their counterparts about problems they
observe, about knowledge needs they have or about possible solutions they perceive.
The second subtype is 6.2: Formal knowledge exchange. This describes knowledge exchange that is embedded in formal structures and processes. For example,
this subtype includes meetings organised by public agencies to gain insights on the
opinions of different actors concerning a particular topic. Such meetings are designed
in the formal style of a consultation, where the statements of the invited actors are
written down and the course of the meeting is rather predetermined. However, this
subtype also embraces formal calls for proposals and knowledge exchange that is
regulated by agreements that define the tasks and duties of two contracting parties.
9.5 Barriers to and Opportunities for Knowledge Exchange
in Spatial Planning, Land Use and Soil Management
in Switzerland
Based on the interviews, we identified 11 “barriers” to and five “opportunities” for
knowledge exchange (Tables 9.1 and 9.2). “Barriers” refer to factors that constrain
knowledge exchange, while “opportunities” refer to factors that improve knowledge
exchange. Basically, both barriers and opportunities are crucial factors influencing
knowledge exchange. Obviously, barriers can turn into opportunities, and vice versa.