at large extent among all fungal species, such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs (Hata et al. 2010). Degradation of pharmaceuticals by fungi depends on
various factors like type of target compounds, fungi species, secretion of enzymes,
composition of culture media, etc. Removal of pharmaceuticals by fungi may
involve two phases, first one is surface binding on fungal cell and another is
metabolism dependent phase in which biotransformation takes place outside the
cell by extracellular enzymatic activities (Naghdi et al. 2018). The entire fungal cell
treatment can degrade the wide spectrum of drugs (anti-inflammatory, antibiotics,
antiepileptics, etc.) with combined effect of intracellular and extracellular enzymes
and biosorption of pharmaceuticals on the biomass (Tran et al. 2010). For example,
sulfamethoxazole (SMX) is an antibiotic drug and it is a recalcitrant. Some white rot
fungi Pleurotus ostreatus, Pleurotus pulmonarius, and Trametes sp. have shown
their capability to degrade the sulfamethoxazole (de Araujo et al. 2017). Degradation
of diclofenac was achieved 99% by Bjerkandera sp. R1 (Rodarte-Morales et al.
2012). Nowadays, enzymes excreted by white rot fungi are used for alteration of
pollutants into their harmless compounds or metabolites (Arora and Sharma 2010).
The example of some extracellular oxidoreductase enzymes are lignin peroxidase
(LiP), manganese peroxidase (MnP), versatile peroxidase (VP), and laccase (Lac)
(Garcia-Ruiz et al. 2014). Table 13.2 has depicted the capabilities of various fungal
sp. to degrade pharmaceuticals.
13.5.3 Algae
Recently, algal-based technologies have gained attention due to their potency for
wastewater treatment and hazardous waste removal. This is a sustainable way to
remove contaminants and also sequestrate greenhouse gases (Park et al. 2011).
These technologies generally remove the pharmaceuticals from wastewater in association with sorption, biodegradation, photodegradation, and volatilization (Zhang et
al. 2012a, b). Algal-based technologies remove chemical oxygen demand which
reduces the energy input by oxygen which is supplied through photosynthetic
process (Wang et al. 2016). Current studies have reported that Chlorella sorokiniana
have the great potential to degrade paracetamol and salicylic acid using nutrient
media (Escapa et al. 2015). For the removal of micro-pollutants and
pharmaceuticals, biodegradation and photolysis have been recommended as key
degrading pathway (de Wilt et al. 2016). Table 13.3 shows the capability of algae
to degrade the pharmaceuticals.
Algae are the point of interest as they can be used for treatment of wastewater as
well as sequestration of CO 2 and production of bioenergy (Craggs et al. 2012). Tam
et al. (2002) reported that biosorption is the physicochemical method which occurs
on the algal cell surface which is an important removal pathway of dead and living
cells. In recent times, mixotrophic microalgae have been proved a good source of
biodegradation of organic and inorganic contaminants followed by utilization of
biomass for sustainable bioenergy production (Pancha et al. 2015). These are fresh
water microalgae which survive on nitrogen and phosphorus rich compounds and
13 Pharmaceuticals: An Emerging Problem of Environment and Its Removal. . .
281
drugs (Hata et al. 2010). Degradation of pharmaceuticals by fungi depends on
various factors like type of target compounds, fungi species, secretion of enzymes,
composition of culture media, etc. Removal of pharmaceuticals by fungi may
involve two phases, first one is surface binding on fungal cell and another is
metabolism dependent phase in which biotransformation takes place outside the
cell by extracellular enzymatic activities (Naghdi et al. 2018). The entire fungal cell
treatment can degrade the wide spectrum of drugs (anti-inflammatory, antibiotics,
antiepileptics, etc.) with combined effect of intracellular and extracellular enzymes
and biosorption of pharmaceuticals on the biomass (Tran et al. 2010). For example,
sulfamethoxazole (SMX) is an antibiotic drug and it is a recalcitrant. Some white rot
fungi Pleurotus ostreatus, Pleurotus pulmonarius, and Trametes sp. have shown
their capability to degrade the sulfamethoxazole (de Araujo et al. 2017). Degradation
of diclofenac was achieved 99% by Bjerkandera sp. R1 (Rodarte-Morales et al.
2012). Nowadays, enzymes excreted by white rot fungi are used for alteration of
pollutants into their harmless compounds or metabolites (Arora and Sharma 2010).
The example of some extracellular oxidoreductase enzymes are lignin peroxidase
(LiP), manganese peroxidase (MnP), versatile peroxidase (VP), and laccase (Lac)
(Garcia-Ruiz et al. 2014). Table 13.2 has depicted the capabilities of various fungal
sp. to degrade pharmaceuticals.
13.5.3 Algae
Recently, algal-based technologies have gained attention due to their potency for
wastewater treatment and hazardous waste removal. This is a sustainable way to
remove contaminants and also sequestrate greenhouse gases (Park et al. 2011).
These technologies generally remove the pharmaceuticals from wastewater in association with sorption, biodegradation, photodegradation, and volatilization (Zhang et
al. 2012a, b). Algal-based technologies remove chemical oxygen demand which
reduces the energy input by oxygen which is supplied through photosynthetic
process (Wang et al. 2016). Current studies have reported that Chlorella sorokiniana
have the great potential to degrade paracetamol and salicylic acid using nutrient
media (Escapa et al. 2015). For the removal of micro-pollutants and
pharmaceuticals, biodegradation and photolysis have been recommended as key
degrading pathway (de Wilt et al. 2016). Table 13.3 shows the capability of algae
to degrade the pharmaceuticals.
Algae are the point of interest as they can be used for treatment of wastewater as
well as sequestration of CO 2 and production of bioenergy (Craggs et al. 2012). Tam
et al. (2002) reported that biosorption is the physicochemical method which occurs
on the algal cell surface which is an important removal pathway of dead and living
cells. In recent times, mixotrophic microalgae have been proved a good source of
biodegradation of organic and inorganic contaminants followed by utilization of
biomass for sustainable bioenergy production (Pancha et al. 2015). These are fresh
water microalgae which survive on nitrogen and phosphorus rich compounds and
13 Pharmaceuticals: An Emerging Problem of Environment and Its Removal. . .
281