3
Soil Forming Factors and Processes
Khaled R. Ben Mahmoud and Hamdi A. Zurqani
Abstract
Soil forming factors not only affect the course of the
genesis process but also the present and future performance of the soil system, in terms of how much organic
matter, air, and water and how many organisms, nutrients,
and minerals it can store. This chapter discusses the soil
formation factors (climate, biota, parent material, relief or
topography, and time) and their impact on the soil
formation processes prevailing in different regions across
the country. It has become clear that the factors of soil
formation in Libya are mainly influenced by the hot and
dry climate (low and irregular rainfall, high temperature,
with a wide range of daily and seasonal temperature
fluctuations, and high wind speed), which plays an
important role in the sparseness of vegetation in the
region. Climate dependency dictates particular types of
soil formation processes that are more dominant in Libya
than in other countries and reduce—if not entirely nullify
—the effectiveness of many of them. Consequently, the
soils produced in Libya are similar to the soils of arid
regions in the world that are undeveloped or newly
developed and are typically either Entisols or Aridisols.
The situation is slightly different in coastal areas (i.e., Al
Jabal Al Akhdar, and some small areas in the mountains
of Tripoli), where the precipitation rates are higher and
the climate is milder than in other parts of the country. In
these areas, the vegetation cover is more widespread, and
the processes of soil formation are more active. Thus, the
local topography and the parent material are the main
factors that influence the formation of more developed
soils in these areas.
Keywords
Arid land Á Libya Á Soil pedology Á Parent material Á
Soil formation Á Weathering processes Á Soil horizons
3.1 Introduction
The factors and processes of soil formation have a great
influence on soil properties, which determine soil profile
characteristics and pedogenic pathways for the soils. The
processes of soil formation at any location are complex,
consisting of a mix of change, addition, loss, and transfer of
mineral and organic materials. These processes are known to
occur in the presence of soil forming factors, both active and
passive. Soil formation processes can either work in unison,
or a group of them may prevail at the same place and time to
form A Soil. As soils form, distinct layers known as horizons
develop over time. These horizons are distinguished from
each other in physical, chemical, and biological properties,
and each has distinct morphological features and a genetic
relationship that connects them (Ben Mahmoud 1995). The
arrangement of these horizons in a soil is known as a soil
profile. Most soils have three major horizons. These are A
Horizon, B Horizon, and C Horizon. Aside from these three
horizons, there are also the O, E, and R horizons (Fig. 3.1).
The intensity and effectiveness of these soil formation
factors differ from one geographical region to another, where
each region has its own conditions that control the factors
and processes of soil formation to produce distinct soils that
express these variations. This clarifies the differences in the
soil types in the world (soils in wet areas compared to soils
in dry areas) or within the same geographical region (i.e.,
Libya), despite the fact that all regions are subject to the
same processes of soil formation (Ben Mahmoud 1995).
K. R. Ben Mahmoud Á H. A. Zurqani (&)
Department of Soil and Water Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture,
University of Tripoli, Tripoli, 13538, Libya
e-mail: h.zurqani@uot.edu.ly
K. R. Ben Mahmoud
e-mail: benmahmoud.kh@gmail.com
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
H. A. Zurqani (ed.), The Soils of Libya, World Soils Book Series,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66368-1_3
33
Soil Forming Factors and Processes
Khaled R. Ben Mahmoud and Hamdi A. Zurqani
Abstract
Soil forming factors not only affect the course of the
genesis process but also the present and future performance of the soil system, in terms of how much organic
matter, air, and water and how many organisms, nutrients,
and minerals it can store. This chapter discusses the soil
formation factors (climate, biota, parent material, relief or
topography, and time) and their impact on the soil
formation processes prevailing in different regions across
the country. It has become clear that the factors of soil
formation in Libya are mainly influenced by the hot and
dry climate (low and irregular rainfall, high temperature,
with a wide range of daily and seasonal temperature
fluctuations, and high wind speed), which plays an
important role in the sparseness of vegetation in the
region. Climate dependency dictates particular types of
soil formation processes that are more dominant in Libya
than in other countries and reduce—if not entirely nullify
—the effectiveness of many of them. Consequently, the
soils produced in Libya are similar to the soils of arid
regions in the world that are undeveloped or newly
developed and are typically either Entisols or Aridisols.
The situation is slightly different in coastal areas (i.e., Al
Jabal Al Akhdar, and some small areas in the mountains
of Tripoli), where the precipitation rates are higher and
the climate is milder than in other parts of the country. In
these areas, the vegetation cover is more widespread, and
the processes of soil formation are more active. Thus, the
local topography and the parent material are the main
factors that influence the formation of more developed
soils in these areas.
Keywords
Arid land Á Libya Á Soil pedology Á Parent material Á
Soil formation Á Weathering processes Á Soil horizons
3.1 Introduction
The factors and processes of soil formation have a great
influence on soil properties, which determine soil profile
characteristics and pedogenic pathways for the soils. The
processes of soil formation at any location are complex,
consisting of a mix of change, addition, loss, and transfer of
mineral and organic materials. These processes are known to
occur in the presence of soil forming factors, both active and
passive. Soil formation processes can either work in unison,
or a group of them may prevail at the same place and time to
form A Soil. As soils form, distinct layers known as horizons
develop over time. These horizons are distinguished from
each other in physical, chemical, and biological properties,
and each has distinct morphological features and a genetic
relationship that connects them (Ben Mahmoud 1995). The
arrangement of these horizons in a soil is known as a soil
profile. Most soils have three major horizons. These are A
Horizon, B Horizon, and C Horizon. Aside from these three
horizons, there are also the O, E, and R horizons (Fig. 3.1).
The intensity and effectiveness of these soil formation
factors differ from one geographical region to another, where
each region has its own conditions that control the factors
and processes of soil formation to produce distinct soils that
express these variations. This clarifies the differences in the
soil types in the world (soils in wet areas compared to soils
in dry areas) or within the same geographical region (i.e.,
Libya), despite the fact that all regions are subject to the
same processes of soil formation (Ben Mahmoud 1995).
K. R. Ben Mahmoud Á H. A. Zurqani (&)
Department of Soil and Water Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture,
University of Tripoli, Tripoli, 13538, Libya
e-mail: h.zurqani@uot.edu.ly
K. R. Ben Mahmoud
e-mail: benmahmoud.kh@gmail.com
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
H. A. Zurqani (ed.), The Soils of Libya, World Soils Book Series,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66368-1_3
33