of nutrients in the irrigated areas leads to the decrease of the
production capability of the lands and their deterioration at
varying degrees.
8.2.4 Soil and Water Pollution
Soil and water resources in Libya are exposed to many
pollutants that differ according to the types of the prevailing
farming systems and the techniques used by farmers. This
problem becomes clearer when fertilizers and pesticides are
used irrationally, especially in the areas of the irrigated
agriculture and where the industrial constructions are close
to agricultural fields, as this leads to the settlement of the
pollutants resulting from these constructions either on the
soil surface or in the soil.
8.2.5 Salinization
Salinization is also the primary type of soil degradation in
Libya. This problem becomes clear in the irrigated areas or
when the water table is increased. It starts with the accumulation of salts which make the soils not suitable for growing
crops, and after sometime these soils become desertified.
8.2.6 Aridification
The depletion of the groundwater resources, especially those
near the surface, leads to the aggravation of the desertification and aridity processes and adversely affects the quantity
of the available waters. When these waters become dry or of
bad quality, the people go elsewhere and leave the lands
exposed to desertification and aridity.
8.2.7 Deforestation
The forested and shrublands areas have been suffering from
severe deforestation, and that is considered one of the biggest environmental challenges in the country (Zurqani et al.
2019). Deforestation increases soil erosion rates due to
exposure to soil mineral by removing the humus and litter
layers from the soil surface.
8.3 Causes and Consequences
of Desertification
8.3.1 Causes of Desertification
Literature has widely discussed land degradation’s causes
(Thomas 1997; Lambin et al. 2001; Reynolds and Stafford
Smith 2002; Geist and Lambin 2004; Ben Mahmoud and
Lolo 2010). It has been concluded that desertification is
caused by multiple direct and indirect factors. It occurs
because drylands’ ecosystems are extremely vulnerable to
over-exploitation and inappropriate land use, which results
in underdevelopment of economies and in entranced poverty
among the affected population. Whereas over-cultivation,
inappropriate agricultural practices, overgrazing, and deforestation have been previously identified as the major causes
of land degradation and desertification, it is, in fact, a result
of much deeper underlying forces of socio-economic nature,
such as poverty and total dependency on natural resources
for survival by the poor. It is also true to state that desertification problems are best understood within the dictates of
disparities of income and access to or ownership of resources. The primary cause of deforestation and natural
pastures in the country is due to the rapid urbanization
process and wood extraction for charcoal (Fig. 8.1a, b).
According to the Global Forest Watch, the total area
covered by forest trees was about 24,344 hectares in 2000,
and it decreased over time as it was about 12,107 hectares in
2011 and 11,866 hectares in 2018. Figure 8.2 shows deforestation activities in the north-western coastal areas
stretching from Tajoura to Misurata (north-east Tripoli):
(a) before December 2006, (b) after December 2016.
In general, the environment in Libya is vulnerable. The
variability of rainfall and the occurrence of occasional relatively heavy showers characterized as high intensity can
produce runoff. The removal of natural vegetation from the
land surface is the main factor that accelerates soil erosion.
The combination of these factors in addition to the topography has increased the rate of soil erosion by water in this
area (Nwer 2005).
Subsequently, the causes of desertification are too complex to be simplified. Desertification is driven by a group of
main variables, mainly climatic factors (Yang and Prince
2000; Hulme and Kelly 1993). The natural factors include
changes in climate: mainly rain, wind, and temperature.
8 Land Degradation and Desertification
121
production capability of the lands and their deterioration at
varying degrees.
8.2.4 Soil and Water Pollution
Soil and water resources in Libya are exposed to many
pollutants that differ according to the types of the prevailing
farming systems and the techniques used by farmers. This
problem becomes clearer when fertilizers and pesticides are
used irrationally, especially in the areas of the irrigated
agriculture and where the industrial constructions are close
to agricultural fields, as this leads to the settlement of the
pollutants resulting from these constructions either on the
soil surface or in the soil.
8.2.5 Salinization
Salinization is also the primary type of soil degradation in
Libya. This problem becomes clear in the irrigated areas or
when the water table is increased. It starts with the accumulation of salts which make the soils not suitable for growing
crops, and after sometime these soils become desertified.
8.2.6 Aridification
The depletion of the groundwater resources, especially those
near the surface, leads to the aggravation of the desertification and aridity processes and adversely affects the quantity
of the available waters. When these waters become dry or of
bad quality, the people go elsewhere and leave the lands
exposed to desertification and aridity.
8.2.7 Deforestation
The forested and shrublands areas have been suffering from
severe deforestation, and that is considered one of the biggest environmental challenges in the country (Zurqani et al.
2019). Deforestation increases soil erosion rates due to
exposure to soil mineral by removing the humus and litter
layers from the soil surface.
8.3 Causes and Consequences
of Desertification
8.3.1 Causes of Desertification
Literature has widely discussed land degradation’s causes
(Thomas 1997; Lambin et al. 2001; Reynolds and Stafford
Smith 2002; Geist and Lambin 2004; Ben Mahmoud and
Lolo 2010). It has been concluded that desertification is
caused by multiple direct and indirect factors. It occurs
because drylands’ ecosystems are extremely vulnerable to
over-exploitation and inappropriate land use, which results
in underdevelopment of economies and in entranced poverty
among the affected population. Whereas over-cultivation,
inappropriate agricultural practices, overgrazing, and deforestation have been previously identified as the major causes
of land degradation and desertification, it is, in fact, a result
of much deeper underlying forces of socio-economic nature,
such as poverty and total dependency on natural resources
for survival by the poor. It is also true to state that desertification problems are best understood within the dictates of
disparities of income and access to or ownership of resources. The primary cause of deforestation and natural
pastures in the country is due to the rapid urbanization
process and wood extraction for charcoal (Fig. 8.1a, b).
According to the Global Forest Watch, the total area
covered by forest trees was about 24,344 hectares in 2000,
and it decreased over time as it was about 12,107 hectares in
2011 and 11,866 hectares in 2018. Figure 8.2 shows deforestation activities in the north-western coastal areas
stretching from Tajoura to Misurata (north-east Tripoli):
(a) before December 2006, (b) after December 2016.
In general, the environment in Libya is vulnerable. The
variability of rainfall and the occurrence of occasional relatively heavy showers characterized as high intensity can
produce runoff. The removal of natural vegetation from the
land surface is the main factor that accelerates soil erosion.
The combination of these factors in addition to the topography has increased the rate of soil erosion by water in this
area (Nwer 2005).
Subsequently, the causes of desertification are too complex to be simplified. Desertification is driven by a group of
main variables, mainly climatic factors (Yang and Prince
2000; Hulme and Kelly 1993). The natural factors include
changes in climate: mainly rain, wind, and temperature.
8 Land Degradation and Desertification
121