7
hepatitis A, hepatitis B, influenza, measles, pertussis, plague, polio, rotavirus, tetanus,
tuberculosis, typhoid, varicella and yellow fever (Orenstein et al. 2010; Reyes et al.
2013). Non-pharmacological interferences to decrease spread of influenza were based
on decreasing the points of contact amongst non-infected and infected people by
“social distancing” apart from closings of churches, theatres, schools, besides prohibitions on large public gatherings (Reyes et al. 2013). Such interventions, when implemented early, can lower cumulative excess mortality and reduce about 50% lower
peak death rates (Hatchett et al. 2007). The morbidity and mortality rebound when
cities relaxed these restrictions (Morse 2007; Markel et al. 2007; Paulo et al. 2010).
The Spanish influenza pandemic of 1918–1919 led to the death of around 50
million people with higher mortality in urban area (Johnson and Mueller 2002).
Quarantine was the foundation of prevention for the period of influenza outbreaks, as the influenza vaccine was not developed until 1945 (Nelson and
Williams 2007).
The First International Sanitary Conference organized in Paris in 1851 by the
European countries recognized that free movement of goods as well as people will
enhance the risk of transmission across the border (WHO 2020). The International
Sanitary Conferences was a series of 14 conferences from 1851 to 1938 that played
a major role in the creation of the World Health Organization in 1948. International
Sanitary Regulations was revised and renamed as the International Health
Regulations (IHR) in the 22nd World Health Assembly, 1969. The IHR encourages
state parties to help build health system ability in lower income states.
In 2007, Indonesia claimed sovereignty over the H5N1 influenza virus samples
isolated within Indonesia’s territories (Rourke 2020). The conflict was resolved in
2011 with the introduction of the WHO’s Pandemic Influenza Preparedness (PIP)
Framework that requires parties to share novel flu virus specimens and provide
reciprocal benefits to other states.
Article 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(ICESCR) from 1966 includes the fundamental concepts of the right to health.
The world conference organized in Stockholm by the UN in 1972 adopted a
Declaration on the Human Environment that originated several principles that exercised a key role in the shaping international environmental law.
The first principle emphasized the fundamental human rights to freedom, equality besides sufficient situation of life in an environment of a quality that allows a life
of pride as well as well-being. Further, it appended that humans bear important
responsibility to guard as well as advance the environment for upcoming as well as
present generations.
Principles 18–20 point out the instruments of global environmental policy planning in addition to management by national institutions, alternative to science and
technology, information exchange, and teaching, as well as information in environmental matters.
Principle 21 confirms, beside developing, the previous legal system, declaring
the accountability of countries, that to make sure the actions within their command
or control do not cause harm to the environment of other countries or of region outside the limits of a country’s jurisdiction. The declaration also confirms that countries should collaborate to develop international law concerning legal responsibility
along with reparation for victims of pollution as well as other environmental damage
1.3 International Legislation
hepatitis A, hepatitis B, influenza, measles, pertussis, plague, polio, rotavirus, tetanus,
tuberculosis, typhoid, varicella and yellow fever (Orenstein et al. 2010; Reyes et al.
2013). Non-pharmacological interferences to decrease spread of influenza were based
on decreasing the points of contact amongst non-infected and infected people by
“social distancing” apart from closings of churches, theatres, schools, besides prohibitions on large public gatherings (Reyes et al. 2013). Such interventions, when implemented early, can lower cumulative excess mortality and reduce about 50% lower
peak death rates (Hatchett et al. 2007). The morbidity and mortality rebound when
cities relaxed these restrictions (Morse 2007; Markel et al. 2007; Paulo et al. 2010).
The Spanish influenza pandemic of 1918–1919 led to the death of around 50
million people with higher mortality in urban area (Johnson and Mueller 2002).
Quarantine was the foundation of prevention for the period of influenza outbreaks, as the influenza vaccine was not developed until 1945 (Nelson and
Williams 2007).
The First International Sanitary Conference organized in Paris in 1851 by the
European countries recognized that free movement of goods as well as people will
enhance the risk of transmission across the border (WHO 2020). The International
Sanitary Conferences was a series of 14 conferences from 1851 to 1938 that played
a major role in the creation of the World Health Organization in 1948. International
Sanitary Regulations was revised and renamed as the International Health
Regulations (IHR) in the 22nd World Health Assembly, 1969. The IHR encourages
state parties to help build health system ability in lower income states.
In 2007, Indonesia claimed sovereignty over the H5N1 influenza virus samples
isolated within Indonesia’s territories (Rourke 2020). The conflict was resolved in
2011 with the introduction of the WHO’s Pandemic Influenza Preparedness (PIP)
Framework that requires parties to share novel flu virus specimens and provide
reciprocal benefits to other states.
Article 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(ICESCR) from 1966 includes the fundamental concepts of the right to health.
The world conference organized in Stockholm by the UN in 1972 adopted a
Declaration on the Human Environment that originated several principles that exercised a key role in the shaping international environmental law.
The first principle emphasized the fundamental human rights to freedom, equality besides sufficient situation of life in an environment of a quality that allows a life
of pride as well as well-being. Further, it appended that humans bear important
responsibility to guard as well as advance the environment for upcoming as well as
present generations.
Principles 18–20 point out the instruments of global environmental policy planning in addition to management by national institutions, alternative to science and
technology, information exchange, and teaching, as well as information in environmental matters.
Principle 21 confirms, beside developing, the previous legal system, declaring
the accountability of countries, that to make sure the actions within their command
or control do not cause harm to the environment of other countries or of region outside the limits of a country’s jurisdiction. The declaration also confirms that countries should collaborate to develop international law concerning legal responsibility
along with reparation for victims of pollution as well as other environmental damage
1.3 International Legislation