304
A. G. Wibisana and S. N. Setyorini
2015 (Hergoualc’h 2017, p. 204). The decline is due to unsustainable deforestation,
uncontrolled forest fires, and unsupervised agricultural development, which lead to a
drastic reduction in the peat swamp forest. Between 2007 and 2015, as much as 73%
of forests were converted to smallholdings and industrial agriculture. The transition
from forest to industrial agriculture is the primary type of conversion occurring
in Kalimantan and Sumatra, at 64 and 44% (Hergoualc’h 2018, p. 1). Eventually,
Indonesia’s peatlands have declined to a critical condition, with an average decrease
of 2.6% per year (Hergoualc’h 2017).
The moisture characteristics of peat do not allow natural fires to occur in tropical peatlands. However, the lands are usually actively drained, or even burned, for
agricultural purposes (Chamorro et al. 2017; Risnandar and Fahmi 2018). The fire
history, according to the Global Forest Watch Fires’ data, confirms that fires tend to
concentrate on agricultural and concessions in Indonesia. Between 2013 and 2014,
about 75% of forest fires did not occur in forests (Dayne 2018). As much as 82%
of fires occurred in peatlands which had not been planted or covered with scrub,
fern, and burning deadwood (Gaveau et al. 2017, p. 259). The data confirms that
agricultural expansion is the most significant cause of peatland fires (Chamorro et al.
2017; Mudiyarso et al. 2010, p. 19655; and Hergoualc’h 2017, p. 204).
Hence, the conversion of peatlands into an agricultural area or other purposes is
the primary indication of degraded peatlands. For example, commenting on Suharto’s
Mega Rice Project, Aldhous states that the peatlands were drained by the construction
of canals for the Project. “Even the dictator’s decree,” so the author continues, “can’t
make water run uphill, so the canals simply sucked the peat dry” (Aldhous 2004,
p. 144).
Other causes of peatland degradation could include the clearing of peatlands
allocated for plantations through the use of the slash-and-burn method. Also, the
burning of land could be used as an instrument to claim occupation and “ownership”
of land during tenurial conflicts (Harrison 2009, p. 157).
These forest and peat fires also affect several things, ranging from environmental
losses such as damage to forests, soils, plants, to losses and threats to Indonesia’s
endemic species, such as orangutans. Another problem that could also arise from
forest/land fires is related to health effect from the haze. This might be the case when
fires occur for months, causing severe respiratory problems in society. Fires have
disrupted Indonesia’s economic activities, from which Indonesia suffered economic
losses amounting to 6.1 billion dollars by 2015 (Chamarro et al. 2017) and experienced difficult diplomatic relations with other neighboring countries (Hergoualc’h
2018, p, 3).
Peatland Protection and Indonesia’s GHG Emissions
Peatland contributes a significant portion of Indonesia’s greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. According to Indonesia’s second National Communication of 2011, total GHG
emissions in 2000 for the three main greenhouse gases (CO 2 , CH 4 , and N 2 O, PFC)
A. G. Wibisana and S. N. Setyorini
2015 (Hergoualc’h 2017, p. 204). The decline is due to unsustainable deforestation,
uncontrolled forest fires, and unsupervised agricultural development, which lead to a
drastic reduction in the peat swamp forest. Between 2007 and 2015, as much as 73%
of forests were converted to smallholdings and industrial agriculture. The transition
from forest to industrial agriculture is the primary type of conversion occurring
in Kalimantan and Sumatra, at 64 and 44% (Hergoualc’h 2018, p. 1). Eventually,
Indonesia’s peatlands have declined to a critical condition, with an average decrease
of 2.6% per year (Hergoualc’h 2017).
The moisture characteristics of peat do not allow natural fires to occur in tropical peatlands. However, the lands are usually actively drained, or even burned, for
agricultural purposes (Chamorro et al. 2017; Risnandar and Fahmi 2018). The fire
history, according to the Global Forest Watch Fires’ data, confirms that fires tend to
concentrate on agricultural and concessions in Indonesia. Between 2013 and 2014,
about 75% of forest fires did not occur in forests (Dayne 2018). As much as 82%
of fires occurred in peatlands which had not been planted or covered with scrub,
fern, and burning deadwood (Gaveau et al. 2017, p. 259). The data confirms that
agricultural expansion is the most significant cause of peatland fires (Chamorro et al.
2017; Mudiyarso et al. 2010, p. 19655; and Hergoualc’h 2017, p. 204).
Hence, the conversion of peatlands into an agricultural area or other purposes is
the primary indication of degraded peatlands. For example, commenting on Suharto’s
Mega Rice Project, Aldhous states that the peatlands were drained by the construction
of canals for the Project. “Even the dictator’s decree,” so the author continues, “can’t
make water run uphill, so the canals simply sucked the peat dry” (Aldhous 2004,
p. 144).
Other causes of peatland degradation could include the clearing of peatlands
allocated for plantations through the use of the slash-and-burn method. Also, the
burning of land could be used as an instrument to claim occupation and “ownership”
of land during tenurial conflicts (Harrison 2009, p. 157).
These forest and peat fires also affect several things, ranging from environmental
losses such as damage to forests, soils, plants, to losses and threats to Indonesia’s
endemic species, such as orangutans. Another problem that could also arise from
forest/land fires is related to health effect from the haze. This might be the case when
fires occur for months, causing severe respiratory problems in society. Fires have
disrupted Indonesia’s economic activities, from which Indonesia suffered economic
losses amounting to 6.1 billion dollars by 2015 (Chamarro et al. 2017) and experienced difficult diplomatic relations with other neighboring countries (Hergoualc’h
2018, p, 3).
Peatland Protection and Indonesia’s GHG Emissions
Peatland contributes a significant portion of Indonesia’s greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. According to Indonesia’s second National Communication of 2011, total GHG
emissions in 2000 for the three main greenhouse gases (CO 2 , CH 4 , and N 2 O, PFC)