146 P. NAEF ET AL.
improving household energy efficiency. Smart technologies can be used
to act directly on energy consumption through management of the
needed parameters, for instance a smart thermostat for self-regulating
homes or self-managing washing machines. The development of smart
systems and technologies is at different stages in Europe. Northern
European countries are generally the most advanced, already operating
smart systems in relation to energy distribution, while other countries
are only in a prospective stage, building and implementing strategies.
Since 2010, smart energy systems gained momentum in Denmark and
Finland, with the latter providing most of its electricity consumers with
automatic meter reading installations. Both countries invested significantly in smart grid and smart energy research. Finland is already developing smart products (e.g. Internet of things, building automation,
smart controls) for the export market and has around 20 cities piloting smart technologies. In the United Kingdom and the Netherlands,
national governments committed to ensuring smart meters for all households by 2020, and smart metering is also part of the 2050 Energy
Strategy of Switzerland. Germany is significantly upgrading its electricity grid, integrating smart technologies, and developing the concept of
smart cities in major urban areas such as Berlin, Munich, Mannheim and
Hamburg.
The number and the ownership of energy suppliers, from private to
state-owned, are also elements that may influence household practices
in relation to energy usage. State regulations related to energy distribution generally seek to protect consumers’ interests and act primarily on
the energy bill (adapting the cost of energy between supply and demand
for example), which can also shape household energy-usage. For example, regulations to offer low electricity prices based on renewable energy
sources might shape the consumer environmental sensitivity. The scale
of the production and distribution (municipal, regional, national) of
energy will influence the number of suppliers (from one national supplier, to multiple regional or local ones). For example, the Dutch state
owned ‘Transmission System operator’, owns and operates the high
voltage transmission grid at the national level in the Netherlands, but
other parts of the grid (lower voltages until 230–400V) are owned and
operated by regional energy companies. Switzerland’s and Finland’s
energy systems are also mostly public, but they are operated at the level
of municipalities, hence decision-making is decentralised and arguably
more responsive to local contextual considerations.
improving household energy efficiency. Smart technologies can be used
to act directly on energy consumption through management of the
needed parameters, for instance a smart thermostat for self-regulating
homes or self-managing washing machines. The development of smart
systems and technologies is at different stages in Europe. Northern
European countries are generally the most advanced, already operating
smart systems in relation to energy distribution, while other countries
are only in a prospective stage, building and implementing strategies.
Since 2010, smart energy systems gained momentum in Denmark and
Finland, with the latter providing most of its electricity consumers with
automatic meter reading installations. Both countries invested significantly in smart grid and smart energy research. Finland is already developing smart products (e.g. Internet of things, building automation,
smart controls) for the export market and has around 20 cities piloting smart technologies. In the United Kingdom and the Netherlands,
national governments committed to ensuring smart meters for all households by 2020, and smart metering is also part of the 2050 Energy
Strategy of Switzerland. Germany is significantly upgrading its electricity grid, integrating smart technologies, and developing the concept of
smart cities in major urban areas such as Berlin, Munich, Mannheim and
Hamburg.
The number and the ownership of energy suppliers, from private to
state-owned, are also elements that may influence household practices
in relation to energy usage. State regulations related to energy distribution generally seek to protect consumers’ interests and act primarily on
the energy bill (adapting the cost of energy between supply and demand
for example), which can also shape household energy-usage. For example, regulations to offer low electricity prices based on renewable energy
sources might shape the consumer environmental sensitivity. The scale
of the production and distribution (municipal, regional, national) of
energy will influence the number of suppliers (from one national supplier, to multiple regional or local ones). For example, the Dutch state
owned ‘Transmission System operator’, owns and operates the high
voltage transmission grid at the national level in the Netherlands, but
other parts of the grid (lower voltages until 230–400V) are owned and
operated by regional energy companies. Switzerland’s and Finland’s
energy systems are also mostly public, but they are operated at the level
of municipalities, hence decision-making is decentralised and arguably
more responsive to local contextual considerations.