and the digestibility, and thus, the dietary could be considered in terms of essential
amino acids instead of total protein (Wolfe et al. 2016). It is worth mentioning that
protein from microalgae, alternatively to the animal protein, is rich in essential
amino acids that the human body cannot synthetize. Table 4.7 shows the essential
amino acid profile of some of the most well-known microalgae species.
The main amino acids found in higher concentration levels in microalgae are
aspartic acid and glutamic acid (MacArtain et al. 2007). On the other hand, in most
of the microalgae species, the essential amino acids tryptophan and lysine are often
limited (Dawczynski et al. 2007; Volkmann et al. 2008), leucine and isoleucine are at
low concentrations (Dawczynski et al. 2007; Mišurcová et al. 2014), and cysteine is
often even undetectable (Kakinuma et al. 2001).
Bioactive peptides are a sequence of specific amino acids that have health benefits
such as antioxidative, antihypertensive, appetite suppression, hypocholesterolemic,
antimicrobial, among others (Korhonen and Pihlanto 2006) and high nutritional
value (Hayes 2013), whose main source is the milk proteins (Saito 2008), but also
were identified in microalgae (Harnedy and Fitz Gerald 2011).
To obtain protein and amino acids from microalgae, it is necessary to carry out the
disruption of the microalgae cell wall. Similarly, to obtain bioactive peptides,
enzymatic hydrolysis should be carried out (González-López et al. 2010; Kim and
Wijesekara 2010).
In this sense, Chlorella vulgaris and Chlorella ellipsoidea showed antioxidant
peptides (Sheih et al. 2010; Ko et al. 2012). Chlorella pyrenoidosa presented
anticancer peptides such as Chlorella pyrenoidosa antitumor polypeptide (CPAP)
(Wang and Zhang 2013) and anti-inflammatory peptides, such as Chlorella
11-peptide (Shih et al. 2013).
Spirulina platensis showed anticancer peptides as polypeptide Y2 (Zhang and
Zhang 2013) and the peptides (Leu-Asp-Ala-Val-Asn-Arg and Met-Met-Leu-AsnPhe) which have also anti-inflammatory and anti-atherosclerosis properties (Vo and
Kim 2013; Vo et al. 2013).
4.5.6 Vitamins
Vitamins are organic molecules that are essential in small quantities for good
functioning of the metabolism of the organisms.
Microalgae appear as a valuable source of vitamins such as A, B1, B2, B6,
B12, C, E, biotin, folic acid, and pantothenic acid (Villarruel-López et al. 2017)
and can be easily used for humans as a supplement food.
Chlorella genus is a very rich source of vitamins such as vitamin B1, B2, B3, B5,
B6, E, and K, and also, but in minor quantities, folic acid, biotin, inositol, choline,
and vitamin B12 (Rani et al. 2018). Spirulina is known as a source of vitamin A, B1,
B2, and B12. Tetraselmis suecica is an excellent source of vitamin B1, B3, B5, B6,
and C, and Dunaliella tertiolecta are rich in vitamin B2 and B12 (Fabregas and
Herrero 1990).
4 Phycoremediation: A Sustainable Biorefinery Approach
117
amino acids instead of total protein (Wolfe et al. 2016). It is worth mentioning that
protein from microalgae, alternatively to the animal protein, is rich in essential
amino acids that the human body cannot synthetize. Table 4.7 shows the essential
amino acid profile of some of the most well-known microalgae species.
The main amino acids found in higher concentration levels in microalgae are
aspartic acid and glutamic acid (MacArtain et al. 2007). On the other hand, in most
of the microalgae species, the essential amino acids tryptophan and lysine are often
limited (Dawczynski et al. 2007; Volkmann et al. 2008), leucine and isoleucine are at
low concentrations (Dawczynski et al. 2007; Mišurcová et al. 2014), and cysteine is
often even undetectable (Kakinuma et al. 2001).
Bioactive peptides are a sequence of specific amino acids that have health benefits
such as antioxidative, antihypertensive, appetite suppression, hypocholesterolemic,
antimicrobial, among others (Korhonen and Pihlanto 2006) and high nutritional
value (Hayes 2013), whose main source is the milk proteins (Saito 2008), but also
were identified in microalgae (Harnedy and Fitz Gerald 2011).
To obtain protein and amino acids from microalgae, it is necessary to carry out the
disruption of the microalgae cell wall. Similarly, to obtain bioactive peptides,
enzymatic hydrolysis should be carried out (González-López et al. 2010; Kim and
Wijesekara 2010).
In this sense, Chlorella vulgaris and Chlorella ellipsoidea showed antioxidant
peptides (Sheih et al. 2010; Ko et al. 2012). Chlorella pyrenoidosa presented
anticancer peptides such as Chlorella pyrenoidosa antitumor polypeptide (CPAP)
(Wang and Zhang 2013) and anti-inflammatory peptides, such as Chlorella
11-peptide (Shih et al. 2013).
Spirulina platensis showed anticancer peptides as polypeptide Y2 (Zhang and
Zhang 2013) and the peptides (Leu-Asp-Ala-Val-Asn-Arg and Met-Met-Leu-AsnPhe) which have also anti-inflammatory and anti-atherosclerosis properties (Vo and
Kim 2013; Vo et al. 2013).
4.5.6 Vitamins
Vitamins are organic molecules that are essential in small quantities for good
functioning of the metabolism of the organisms.
Microalgae appear as a valuable source of vitamins such as A, B1, B2, B6,
B12, C, E, biotin, folic acid, and pantothenic acid (Villarruel-López et al. 2017)
and can be easily used for humans as a supplement food.
Chlorella genus is a very rich source of vitamins such as vitamin B1, B2, B3, B5,
B6, E, and K, and also, but in minor quantities, folic acid, biotin, inositol, choline,
and vitamin B12 (Rani et al. 2018). Spirulina is known as a source of vitamin A, B1,
B2, and B12. Tetraselmis suecica is an excellent source of vitamin B1, B3, B5, B6,
and C, and Dunaliella tertiolecta are rich in vitamin B2 and B12 (Fabregas and
Herrero 1990).
4 Phycoremediation: A Sustainable Biorefinery Approach
117