55
Brine shrimp (Artemia saliva) larvae were chosen as an indicator of ecotoxicity
by Hayyan et al. (Hayyan et al. 2013). Deep eutectic solvents prepared from choline
chloride combined with urea, glycerol, ethylene glycol, and triethylene glycol
exerted some toxicity toward the shrimp larvae. This toxicity was more than the
additive effect of the individual components, and the viscosity of the deep eutectic
solvents was suggested as one possible explanation.
A more complex marine organism, the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) was used
by Juneidi et al. to evaluate deep eutectic solvents based on choline chloride combined with alcohols, sugars, organic acids, urea, and zinc chloride (Juneidi et al.
2016). Acute toxicity toward the fish was performed by adding the solvents to the
water in the aquarium and adjusting the pH if necessary. Mortality was measured
after 16 days. In agreement with their data obtained with fungi, only containing zinc
chloride, malonic acid, or para-toluenesulfonic acid showed median lethal dose
values below 100 mg/L.
2.2.4 In Vivo Toxicity in Rodents
Hayyan et al. determined the acute toxicity toward mice of a range of choline
chloride- based deep eutectic solvents. The median lethal dose (LD 50 ) of the deep
eutectic solvents was determined in ICR mice after a single oral administration.
Values of 5 to 6 g/kg were obtained for the solvents with glycerol, ethylene glycol,
and triethylene glycol, while the choline chloride:urea 1:3 caused immediate death
of the animals. However, a 1:2 composition had similar toxicity to the other solvents. Blood biochemistry showed some elevation of transaminases indicative of
liver damage. The conclusion of this study was that choline-based deep eutectic
solvents are not completely devoid of toxicity and that the compositions need to be
carefully considered (Hayyan et al. 2015). In a later study, some natural deep
Fig. 2.2 Effect of DES on garlic bulbs and on hydra. (Adapted from Wen et al. 2015 with permission of Elsevier)
2 Deep Eutectic Solvents for Innovative Pharmaceutical Formulations
Brine shrimp (Artemia saliva) larvae were chosen as an indicator of ecotoxicity
by Hayyan et al. (Hayyan et al. 2013). Deep eutectic solvents prepared from choline
chloride combined with urea, glycerol, ethylene glycol, and triethylene glycol
exerted some toxicity toward the shrimp larvae. This toxicity was more than the
additive effect of the individual components, and the viscosity of the deep eutectic
solvents was suggested as one possible explanation.
A more complex marine organism, the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) was used
by Juneidi et al. to evaluate deep eutectic solvents based on choline chloride combined with alcohols, sugars, organic acids, urea, and zinc chloride (Juneidi et al.
2016). Acute toxicity toward the fish was performed by adding the solvents to the
water in the aquarium and adjusting the pH if necessary. Mortality was measured
after 16 days. In agreement with their data obtained with fungi, only containing zinc
chloride, malonic acid, or para-toluenesulfonic acid showed median lethal dose
values below 100 mg/L.
2.2.4 In Vivo Toxicity in Rodents
Hayyan et al. determined the acute toxicity toward mice of a range of choline
chloride- based deep eutectic solvents. The median lethal dose (LD 50 ) of the deep
eutectic solvents was determined in ICR mice after a single oral administration.
Values of 5 to 6 g/kg were obtained for the solvents with glycerol, ethylene glycol,
and triethylene glycol, while the choline chloride:urea 1:3 caused immediate death
of the animals. However, a 1:2 composition had similar toxicity to the other solvents. Blood biochemistry showed some elevation of transaminases indicative of
liver damage. The conclusion of this study was that choline-based deep eutectic
solvents are not completely devoid of toxicity and that the compositions need to be
carefully considered (Hayyan et al. 2015). In a later study, some natural deep
Fig. 2.2 Effect of DES on garlic bulbs and on hydra. (Adapted from Wen et al. 2015 with permission of Elsevier)
2 Deep Eutectic Solvents for Innovative Pharmaceutical Formulations