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The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum
21.3.1 AutoFInIng ProCess
The Autofining process differs from other hydrorefining processes in that an external source of
hydrogen is not required. Sufficient hydrogen to convert sulfur to hydrogen sulfide is obtained by
dehydrogenation of naphthenes in the feedstock.
The processing equipment is similar to that used in hydrofining (see the following section). The
catalyst is cobalt oxide and molybdenum oxide on alumina, and operating conditions are usually
340°C–425°C (650°F–800°F) at pressures of 100–200 psi. Hydrogen formed by dehydrogenation of
naphthenes in the reactor is separated from the treated oil and is then recycled through the reactor.
The catalyst is regenerated with steam and air at 200–1000 h intervals, depending on whether light
or heavy feedstocks have been processed. The process is used for the same purpose as hydrofining
but is limited to fractions with end points no higher than 370°C (700°F).
21.3.2 FerroFInIng ProCess
This mild hydrogen-treating process was developed to treat distilled and solvent-refined lubricating
oils. The process eliminates the need for acid and clay treatment. The catalyst is a three-component
material on an alumina base with low hydrogen consumption and a life expectancy of 2 years or
more. Process operations include heating the hydrogen-oil mixture and charging to a downflow
catalyst-filled reactor. Separation of oil and gas is a two-stage operation whereby gas is removed to
the fuel system. The oil is then steam stripped to control the flash point and dried in vacuum, and a
final filtering step removes catalyst fines.
21.3.3 gulF Hds ProCess
This is a regenerative fixed-bed process to upgrade petroleum residues by catalytic hydrogenation
to refined heavy fuel oils or to high-quality catalytic charge stocks. Desulfurization and quality
improvement are the primary purposes of the process, but if the operating conditions and catalysts
are varied, light distillates can be produced and the viscosity of heavy material can be lowered.
Long on-stream cycles are maintained by reducing random hydrocracking reactions to a minimum,
and whole crude oils, virgin, or cracked residua may serve as feedstock.
The catalyst is a metallic compound supported on pelletized alumina and may be regenerated
in situ with air and steam or flue gas through a temperature cycle of 400°C–650°C (750°F–1200°F).
On-stream cycles of 4–5 months can be obtained at desulfurization levels of 65%–75%, and catalyst
life may be as long as 2 years.
21.3.4 HydroFInIng ProCess
Hydrofining is a process used for reducing the sulfur content of feedstocks by being treating the
feedstock in the presence of a catalyst. Thus, hydrofining may be used to upgrade straight run,
cracked or coker-derived naphtha and distillate boiling-range streams, thus increasing the supply
of catalytic reformer feedstock, solvent naphtha, and other naphtha-type materials. The sulfur
content of kerosene can be reduced with improved color, odor, and wick-char characteristics.
The tendency of kerosene to form smoke is not affected because aromatics, which cause smoke,
are not affected by the mild hydrofining conditions. Cracked gas oil having high sulfur content can
be converted to excellent fuel oil and diesel fuel by reduction in sulfur content and by the elimination of components that form gum and carbon residues.
This process can be applied to lubricating oil, naphtha, and gas oil. The feedstock is heated in a
furnace and passed with hydrogen through a reactor containing a suitable metal oxide catalyst, such
as cobalt and molybdenum oxides or alumina. Hydrogen is obtained from catalytic reforming units.
Reactor operating conditions range from 205°C to 425°C (400°F to 800°F) and from 50 to 800 psi,
The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum
21.3.1 AutoFInIng ProCess
The Autofining process differs from other hydrorefining processes in that an external source of
hydrogen is not required. Sufficient hydrogen to convert sulfur to hydrogen sulfide is obtained by
dehydrogenation of naphthenes in the feedstock.
The processing equipment is similar to that used in hydrofining (see the following section). The
catalyst is cobalt oxide and molybdenum oxide on alumina, and operating conditions are usually
340°C–425°C (650°F–800°F) at pressures of 100–200 psi. Hydrogen formed by dehydrogenation of
naphthenes in the reactor is separated from the treated oil and is then recycled through the reactor.
The catalyst is regenerated with steam and air at 200–1000 h intervals, depending on whether light
or heavy feedstocks have been processed. The process is used for the same purpose as hydrofining
but is limited to fractions with end points no higher than 370°C (700°F).
21.3.2 FerroFInIng ProCess
This mild hydrogen-treating process was developed to treat distilled and solvent-refined lubricating
oils. The process eliminates the need for acid and clay treatment. The catalyst is a three-component
material on an alumina base with low hydrogen consumption and a life expectancy of 2 years or
more. Process operations include heating the hydrogen-oil mixture and charging to a downflow
catalyst-filled reactor. Separation of oil and gas is a two-stage operation whereby gas is removed to
the fuel system. The oil is then steam stripped to control the flash point and dried in vacuum, and a
final filtering step removes catalyst fines.
21.3.3 gulF Hds ProCess
This is a regenerative fixed-bed process to upgrade petroleum residues by catalytic hydrogenation
to refined heavy fuel oils or to high-quality catalytic charge stocks. Desulfurization and quality
improvement are the primary purposes of the process, but if the operating conditions and catalysts
are varied, light distillates can be produced and the viscosity of heavy material can be lowered.
Long on-stream cycles are maintained by reducing random hydrocracking reactions to a minimum,
and whole crude oils, virgin, or cracked residua may serve as feedstock.
The catalyst is a metallic compound supported on pelletized alumina and may be regenerated
in situ with air and steam or flue gas through a temperature cycle of 400°C–650°C (750°F–1200°F).
On-stream cycles of 4–5 months can be obtained at desulfurization levels of 65%–75%, and catalyst
life may be as long as 2 years.
21.3.4 HydroFInIng ProCess
Hydrofining is a process used for reducing the sulfur content of feedstocks by being treating the
feedstock in the presence of a catalyst. Thus, hydrofining may be used to upgrade straight run,
cracked or coker-derived naphtha and distillate boiling-range streams, thus increasing the supply
of catalytic reformer feedstock, solvent naphtha, and other naphtha-type materials. The sulfur
content of kerosene can be reduced with improved color, odor, and wick-char characteristics.
The tendency of kerosene to form smoke is not affected because aromatics, which cause smoke,
are not affected by the mild hydrofining conditions. Cracked gas oil having high sulfur content can
be converted to excellent fuel oil and diesel fuel by reduction in sulfur content and by the elimination of components that form gum and carbon residues.
This process can be applied to lubricating oil, naphtha, and gas oil. The feedstock is heated in a
furnace and passed with hydrogen through a reactor containing a suitable metal oxide catalyst, such
as cobalt and molybdenum oxides or alumina. Hydrogen is obtained from catalytic reforming units.
Reactor operating conditions range from 205°C to 425°C (400°F to 800°F) and from 50 to 800 psi,