enzymes produce more than one maltooligosaccharide, although they preferentially
produce one type as the predominant or initial product. Maltotetraose syrup
(G4 syrup) is produced by starch hydrolysis using maltotetraose-forming amylases
(G4 amylase). Commercial thermostable α-amylase of alkaliphilic B. licheniformis
or B. subtilis strains has been used in the production of maltotetraose syrup [16].
The production of a mixture of maltooligosaccharides, or commonly referred
to as “maltooligomer mix”, a new commercial product, is produced by starch
hydrolysis using α-amylase, β-amylase and pullulanase. Maltooligomer mix tastes
less sweet than sucrose and has a lower viscosity than corn syrup because of its
low content of high-molecular-weight dextrins. Thus, maltooligomer mix is mainly
used as a substitute for sucrose and other saccharides. It is also used for preventing
crystallization of sucrose in foods [2]. Maltooligosaccharide-forming amylases have
potential application in the production of these maltooligomer mixtures of varying
compositions.
A recent review on maltooligosaccharide-forming amylases mentions the benefits
of maltooligosaccharides in human health [48]. Maltooligosaccharides reach the
intestine without being digested and are used as substrates by the intestinal
α-glucosidase which is derived from erythrocytes, thus providing continuous
energy supply. They are therefore suitable for use by athletes and special patients.
Additionally, pancreatic α-amylases digest dietary starch to produce maltose and
maltooligosaccharides, which are then digested by α-glucosidases from the intestinal
enterocytes to produce glucose. Maltooligosaccharides have been implicated in
glycaemic control responses as they have been shown to signal intestinal enterocytes
to promote faster cell differentiation [49] in [48].
4.3 Production of Cyclodextrins
Cyclodextrins (CDs) are non-reducing cyclic oligosaccharides composed of Dglucose units linked by α-1,4 glycosidic bonds. The most common are CDs
made of 6, 7 or 8 of such units and are referred to as α-, β- and γ-cyclodextrins,
respectively (Fig. 2). These cyclic molecules have an interior hydrophobic cavity
and a hydrophilic exterior, which enables the inclusion of various hydrophobic
molecules within the hydrophobic cavity, commonly referred to as “guest” molecules. This property makes these compounds more suitable for industrial application
in analytical chemistry, agriculture, pharmaceutical, food, cosmetic, textile and other
industries [50–53]. β-Cyclodextrin has a low solubility in water, which makes its
separation and purification relatively easy compared to α- and γ-cyclodextrin [54].
On the other hand, compared to α- and β-cyclodextrins, γ-cyclodextrin has a larger
internal cavity, higher water solubility and more bioavailability. As such, it has
wider applications in many industries, especially in the food and pharmaceutical
industries [55]. On the basis of the size of their cavities, α-cyclodextrin can form
inclusion complexes only with low-molecular-weight molecules or compounds with
aliphatic side chains, and β-cyclodextrin can complex aromatics or heterocycles,
230
S. O. Hashim
produce one type as the predominant or initial product. Maltotetraose syrup
(G4 syrup) is produced by starch hydrolysis using maltotetraose-forming amylases
(G4 amylase). Commercial thermostable α-amylase of alkaliphilic B. licheniformis
or B. subtilis strains has been used in the production of maltotetraose syrup [16].
The production of a mixture of maltooligosaccharides, or commonly referred
to as “maltooligomer mix”, a new commercial product, is produced by starch
hydrolysis using α-amylase, β-amylase and pullulanase. Maltooligomer mix tastes
less sweet than sucrose and has a lower viscosity than corn syrup because of its
low content of high-molecular-weight dextrins. Thus, maltooligomer mix is mainly
used as a substitute for sucrose and other saccharides. It is also used for preventing
crystallization of sucrose in foods [2]. Maltooligosaccharide-forming amylases have
potential application in the production of these maltooligomer mixtures of varying
compositions.
A recent review on maltooligosaccharide-forming amylases mentions the benefits
of maltooligosaccharides in human health [48]. Maltooligosaccharides reach the
intestine without being digested and are used as substrates by the intestinal
α-glucosidase which is derived from erythrocytes, thus providing continuous
energy supply. They are therefore suitable for use by athletes and special patients.
Additionally, pancreatic α-amylases digest dietary starch to produce maltose and
maltooligosaccharides, which are then digested by α-glucosidases from the intestinal
enterocytes to produce glucose. Maltooligosaccharides have been implicated in
glycaemic control responses as they have been shown to signal intestinal enterocytes
to promote faster cell differentiation [49] in [48].
4.3 Production of Cyclodextrins
Cyclodextrins (CDs) are non-reducing cyclic oligosaccharides composed of Dglucose units linked by α-1,4 glycosidic bonds. The most common are CDs
made of 6, 7 or 8 of such units and are referred to as α-, β- and γ-cyclodextrins,
respectively (Fig. 2). These cyclic molecules have an interior hydrophobic cavity
and a hydrophilic exterior, which enables the inclusion of various hydrophobic
molecules within the hydrophobic cavity, commonly referred to as “guest” molecules. This property makes these compounds more suitable for industrial application
in analytical chemistry, agriculture, pharmaceutical, food, cosmetic, textile and other
industries [50–53]. β-Cyclodextrin has a low solubility in water, which makes its
separation and purification relatively easy compared to α- and γ-cyclodextrin [54].
On the other hand, compared to α- and β-cyclodextrins, γ-cyclodextrin has a larger
internal cavity, higher water solubility and more bioavailability. As such, it has
wider applications in many industries, especially in the food and pharmaceutical
industries [55]. On the basis of the size of their cavities, α-cyclodextrin can form
inclusion complexes only with low-molecular-weight molecules or compounds with
aliphatic side chains, and β-cyclodextrin can complex aromatics or heterocycles,
230
S. O. Hashim