vi
CONTENTS
2.6.2 Natural Gas
57
2.6.3 Heavy Oil
58
2.6.4 Tar Sand Bitumen
59
2.7 References
62
3 Exploration, Recovery, and Transportation
65
3.1 Exploration
66
3.2 Drilling
70
3.2.1 Preparing to Drill
70
3.2.2 The Drilling Rig
71
3.2.3 Drilling
72
3.2.4 Well Completion
73
3.3 Recovery
75
3.3.1 Primary Recovery (Natural Methods)
77
3.3.2 Secondary Recovery
79
3.3.3 Enhanced Oil Recovery
82
3.4 Bitumen Recovery
86
3.4.1 Mining Methods
86
3.4.2 Non-Mining Methods
88
3.5 Transportation
91
3.6 Products and Product Quality
97
3.7 References
100
4 Crude Oil Classification and Benchmarks
103
4.1 Crude Oil Classification
105
4.1.1 Classification as a Hydrocarbon Resource
107
4.1.2 Classification by Chemical Composition
107
4.1.3 Density and API Gravity
109
4.1.4 Viscosity
109
4.1.5 UOP Characterization Factor
110
4.1.6 Pour Point
110
4.1.7 Recovery Method
111
4.2 Classification of Reserves
111
4.2.1 SPE Standards
114
4.2.2 SEC Standards
119
4.2.3 Russian Standards
122
4.2.4 Miscellaneous Standards
125