solution during burial and the reactions must be nearly
isochemical. This is because the porewater will always
be closely in equilibrium with the carbonate minerals
that are present. This leaves little potential for transport by diffusion, or by advection, because the flow
rates are so small, particularly in relation to the
isotherms. Focused flow as along faults will cause
some dissolution because of the retrograde solubility
of carbonates like calcite. The solubility is also a
function of pressure but flow across pressure barriers
is rather limited.
Much of the compaction of carbonate rocks occurs
along stylolites because the dissolution and transport
along grain contacts are enhanced by the presence of
sheet silicates (see Chap. 5).
13.4 Summary
Shales, sandstones and carbonates follow different
compaction trends and they are controlled by principally different processes.
Both shales and sandstones compact mechanically
as a function of effective stress until chemical compaction takes over and further compaction is mainly a
function of temperature and time. The initial mineralogical and textural composition is very important both
for sandstones and mudstones (shales). This is clearly
shown by experimental compaction of sediments with
different mineralogical and textural composition.
Smectitic clays are very different from clays with
other types of clay minerals.
Carbonate sediments may compact chemically at
very shallow depth and low temperature and the compaction process is driven by a complex interaction
between stress and chemical compaction, but the temperature is less important than in siliceous sediments.
One of the main factors controlling compaction
and rock properties in carbonates is the primary
content and distribution of aragonite, causing early
cementation.
Further Reading
Bjørlykke, K. 1981. Diagenetic reactions in sandstones. In:
Parker, A. and Sellwood, B.W. (eds.), Sediment Diagenesis.
NATO Advanced Study Institute, Reading, UK, Reidel Publ.
Co., pp. 169–213.
Bjørlykke, K. 2003. Compaction (consolidation) of sediments.
In: Middleton, G.V. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Sediments and
Sedimentary Rocks. Kluwer Academic Publ., Dordrecht, pp.
161–168.
Bjørlykke, K. 2006. Effects of compaction processes on stress,
faults, and fluid flow in sedimentary basins. In: Buiters, S.H.J.
and Schreurs G. (eds.), Analogue and Numerical Modelling of
Crustal-Scale Processes. Geological Society Special Publication 253, pp. 359–379.
Bjørlykke, K. 2014. Relationships between depositional
environments, burial history and rock properties. Some principal aspects of diagenetic processes in sedimentary basins.
Journal of Sedimentary Geology 301, 1–14.
Bjørlykke, K., Aagaard, P., Dypvik, H., Hastings, D.S. and Harper,
A.S. 1986. Diagenesis and reservoir properties of Jurassic
sandstones from the Haltenbanken area, offshore mid – Norway.
In: Spencer, A.M. et al. (eds.), Habitat of Hydrocarbons on the
Norwegian Continental Shelf. Norwegian Petroleum Society,
Graham & Trotman, London, pp. 275–286.
Bjørlykke, K., Chuhan, F., Kjeldstad, A., Gundersen, E.,
Lauvrak, O. and Høeg, K. 2004. Modelling of sediment
compaction during burial in sedimentary basins. In: O.
Stephansson, J. Hudson and L. King (eds.), Coupled
Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical-Chemical Processes in Geosystems. Elsevier, London, pp. 699–708.
Chuhan, F.A., Kjeldstad, A., Bjørlykke, K. and Høeg, K. 2002.
Porosity loss in sand by grain crushing. Experimental evidence and relevance to reservoir quality. Marine and Petroleum Geology 19, 39–53.
Chuhan, F.A., Kjeldstad, A., Bjørlykke, K. and Høeg, K. 2003.
Experimental compression of loose sands: Relevance to
porosity reduction during burial in sedimentary basins.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal 40, 995–1011.
Croize ´, D., Renard, F., Bjørlykke, K. and Dysthe, D. 2010.
Experimental calcite dissolution under stress: Evolution of
grain contact microstructure during pressure solution creep.
Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth 115, B09207,
doi:10.1029/2010JB000869, 15 pp.
Ehrenberg, S.N. and Nadeau, P.H. 2005. Sandstone vs. carbonate petroleum reservoirs; a global perspective on porositydepth and porosity-permeability relationships. AAPG Bulletin 89(4), 435–445.
Ehrenberg, S.N., McArthur, J.M. and Thirlwall, M.F. 2006.
Growth, demise and dolomitization of Miocene carbonate
platforms on the Marion Plateau, offshore NE Australia.
Journal of Sedimentary Research 76, 91–116.
Ehrenberg, S.N, Nadeau, P.H. and Steen, Ø. 2008. A megascale
view of reservoir quality in producing sandstones from the
offshore Gulf of Mexico. AAPG Bulletin 92, 145–164.
Hesthammer, J., Bjørkum, P.A. and Watts, L. 2002. The effect
of temperature on sealing capacity of faults in sandstone
reservoirs – Examples from the Gullfaks and Gullfaks Sør
Fields, North Sea. AAPG Bulletin 86(10), 1733–1751.
Hovland, M., Bjørkum, P.A., Gudemestad, O.T. and Orange, D.
2001. Gas hydrate and seeps – Effects on slope stability: The
“hydraulic model”. ISOPE Conference Proceedings,
Stavanger, pp. 471–476, ISOPE (International Society for
Offshore and Polar Engineering), New York.
Marcussen, Ø., Thyberg, B.I., Peltonen, C., Jahren, J.,
Bjørlykke, K. and Faleide, J.I. 2009a. Physical properties
of Cenozoic mudstones from the northern North Sea: Impact
13 Compaction of Sedimentary Rocks: Shales, Sandstones and Carbonates
359
isochemical. This is because the porewater will always
be closely in equilibrium with the carbonate minerals
that are present. This leaves little potential for transport by diffusion, or by advection, because the flow
rates are so small, particularly in relation to the
isotherms. Focused flow as along faults will cause
some dissolution because of the retrograde solubility
of carbonates like calcite. The solubility is also a
function of pressure but flow across pressure barriers
is rather limited.
Much of the compaction of carbonate rocks occurs
along stylolites because the dissolution and transport
along grain contacts are enhanced by the presence of
sheet silicates (see Chap. 5).
13.4 Summary
Shales, sandstones and carbonates follow different
compaction trends and they are controlled by principally different processes.
Both shales and sandstones compact mechanically
as a function of effective stress until chemical compaction takes over and further compaction is mainly a
function of temperature and time. The initial mineralogical and textural composition is very important both
for sandstones and mudstones (shales). This is clearly
shown by experimental compaction of sediments with
different mineralogical and textural composition.
Smectitic clays are very different from clays with
other types of clay minerals.
Carbonate sediments may compact chemically at
very shallow depth and low temperature and the compaction process is driven by a complex interaction
between stress and chemical compaction, but the temperature is less important than in siliceous sediments.
One of the main factors controlling compaction
and rock properties in carbonates is the primary
content and distribution of aragonite, causing early
cementation.
Further Reading
Bjørlykke, K. 1981. Diagenetic reactions in sandstones. In:
Parker, A. and Sellwood, B.W. (eds.), Sediment Diagenesis.
NATO Advanced Study Institute, Reading, UK, Reidel Publ.
Co., pp. 169–213.
Bjørlykke, K. 2003. Compaction (consolidation) of sediments.
In: Middleton, G.V. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Sediments and
Sedimentary Rocks. Kluwer Academic Publ., Dordrecht, pp.
161–168.
Bjørlykke, K. 2006. Effects of compaction processes on stress,
faults, and fluid flow in sedimentary basins. In: Buiters, S.H.J.
and Schreurs G. (eds.), Analogue and Numerical Modelling of
Crustal-Scale Processes. Geological Society Special Publication 253, pp. 359–379.
Bjørlykke, K. 2014. Relationships between depositional
environments, burial history and rock properties. Some principal aspects of diagenetic processes in sedimentary basins.
Journal of Sedimentary Geology 301, 1–14.
Bjørlykke, K., Aagaard, P., Dypvik, H., Hastings, D.S. and Harper,
A.S. 1986. Diagenesis and reservoir properties of Jurassic
sandstones from the Haltenbanken area, offshore mid – Norway.
In: Spencer, A.M. et al. (eds.), Habitat of Hydrocarbons on the
Norwegian Continental Shelf. Norwegian Petroleum Society,
Graham & Trotman, London, pp. 275–286.
Bjørlykke, K., Chuhan, F., Kjeldstad, A., Gundersen, E.,
Lauvrak, O. and Høeg, K. 2004. Modelling of sediment
compaction during burial in sedimentary basins. In: O.
Stephansson, J. Hudson and L. King (eds.), Coupled
Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical-Chemical Processes in Geosystems. Elsevier, London, pp. 699–708.
Chuhan, F.A., Kjeldstad, A., Bjørlykke, K. and Høeg, K. 2002.
Porosity loss in sand by grain crushing. Experimental evidence and relevance to reservoir quality. Marine and Petroleum Geology 19, 39–53.
Chuhan, F.A., Kjeldstad, A., Bjørlykke, K. and Høeg, K. 2003.
Experimental compression of loose sands: Relevance to
porosity reduction during burial in sedimentary basins.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal 40, 995–1011.
Croize ´, D., Renard, F., Bjørlykke, K. and Dysthe, D. 2010.
Experimental calcite dissolution under stress: Evolution of
grain contact microstructure during pressure solution creep.
Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth 115, B09207,
doi:10.1029/2010JB000869, 15 pp.
Ehrenberg, S.N. and Nadeau, P.H. 2005. Sandstone vs. carbonate petroleum reservoirs; a global perspective on porositydepth and porosity-permeability relationships. AAPG Bulletin 89(4), 435–445.
Ehrenberg, S.N., McArthur, J.M. and Thirlwall, M.F. 2006.
Growth, demise and dolomitization of Miocene carbonate
platforms on the Marion Plateau, offshore NE Australia.
Journal of Sedimentary Research 76, 91–116.
Ehrenberg, S.N, Nadeau, P.H. and Steen, Ø. 2008. A megascale
view of reservoir quality in producing sandstones from the
offshore Gulf of Mexico. AAPG Bulletin 92, 145–164.
Hesthammer, J., Bjørkum, P.A. and Watts, L. 2002. The effect
of temperature on sealing capacity of faults in sandstone
reservoirs – Examples from the Gullfaks and Gullfaks Sør
Fields, North Sea. AAPG Bulletin 86(10), 1733–1751.
Hovland, M., Bjørkum, P.A., Gudemestad, O.T. and Orange, D.
2001. Gas hydrate and seeps – Effects on slope stability: The
“hydraulic model”. ISOPE Conference Proceedings,
Stavanger, pp. 471–476, ISOPE (International Society for
Offshore and Polar Engineering), New York.
Marcussen, Ø., Thyberg, B.I., Peltonen, C., Jahren, J.,
Bjørlykke, K. and Faleide, J.I. 2009a. Physical properties
of Cenozoic mudstones from the northern North Sea: Impact
13 Compaction of Sedimentary Rocks: Shales, Sandstones and Carbonates
359