404
sediment entering the basin along transverse drainage systems and th erefore tends to be characterized
by larger channels. Such basins are commonly underfilled, in the terminology of/ordan (1995). These
differences are illustrated in Fig. 11.68. Examination
of these differences in individual cases may throw
important light on basin development. For example,
Burbank (1992) demonstrated that during the
Pliocene the Him alayan foreland basin of India underwent a transition from an underfi lled condition,
with an axial ancestral Ganges ri ver system flowing
in a relatively proximal position, to an overfilled
condition, dominated by transverse drainage of giant fan systems, such as the Kosi, and with th e axial
drainage having migrated laterally to a very distal
position withi n the basin. He related this change to
post-tectonic uplift of the Himalayan ranges and the.
proxim al basi n and to the irtcreased sedim ent supply
that resulted from this unroofing, the initiation of
the Indian monsoon, and from the late Cenozoic
Alpine glaci ation. His data for India therefore support the <'antitectonic" model for foreland basin
development (Sect. 11.3.6), in constrast to that part
of the basin located in Pakistan, wh ich Burban k et al.
(1988, 19 89) argued <;l p veloped according to the traditional ''syntectonic'
' model of sedimentation and
tectonics.
Ei sbacher et al. (1974) dem onstrated that transverse drainage derives mainly from structural
salients along fold-thrust belts, suc h as the central,
most uplifted par t of thrust plates, where the belt
tends to have a convex curvature faci ng the basin,
whereas many major longitudinal streams enter the
basin at reentrants, such as at the terminatiort of
thrust plates or at terrane sutures. They cited
the modern Him alayan foredeep as an example. Major alluvial fans, such as that of the Kosi River, represent transverse drainage from structural salients,
whereas the Brahmaputra River, one of the major
axi al
. drainage chaniiels · irt the basi � , enters at the
major syntaxis that marks the end of the Himalayan
ranges, iri Assam. Many transverse drainages are
thought to be antecedent riV ers; that is, they predate
the development of the mountain ranges through
whic h they cut. Examples in the Him alayas are cited
by Holmes (1965) and Seeber and Gornitz (1983),
and in the Zagros Ranges by Baltzer and Purser
(1 990).
Stratigraphic successions in foreland basins
are strongly cyclic. Regional tectonism has long
been known to be a prim ary control, and in recent
years there has been much debate regarding the
importance of eustasy as a major stratigraphic
Tectonic Control ofFlt!Vi!3.1 Sedimentation
control (e.g., Posamentier et al. 19 88; Miall 1991c;
Posamentier and Weim er 19 93). The relationship
between th rust-sheet loadi ng and the development
of a sedim entary moat is well established (e.g., Bally
et al. 1966) and has been modeled quantitatively by
several workers (e.g., Beaumont 1981; jordan 19 81;
jordan and Flemi ngs 199 0) . Rec ently, attempts have
been made to examine the correlation between
specific stratigraphic sequences, such as major
molasse pulses, and major regional tec tonic events
such as terrane collisions (Cant and Stockmal 19 89 ;
Stockmal et al. 1992) and thrust movement episodes
(Jordan et al. 19 88; Burbank and Raynolds 1988).
The nature of the theoretical relationship between
tectonism, subsidence, and sedimentation is exam�
ined in detai l in Sect. 11.3 .6. Tectonic cyclicity is on
several times scales. Of most concern here are the
so-called thi rd-, fourth-, and fifth-order sequences,
whic h have indicated durations of 1- 10, 0.2- 0.5, and
0.01- 0.2 million years, respectively. Longer-term sequences (> 10 million years) are related to global
plate-tectonic controls and are beyond · the concern
of thi s chapter (see Sect. 13.4 and review in Miall
1990). The relative importanc e of tectonism and
eustasy in generating these sequences is by no means
clear, either in general global terms or in the case of
the specific sequences in foreland basins. The followin ,s paragraphs provide brief discussions of the
nonmarine cyclicity in several foreland basins
around the world.
The Oligocene-Miocene molasse in the Digne
area of southeast France is discussed briefly in Sect.
11.4.5.1. Crumeyrolle et al. (1991) suggested that the
overall molasse succession is a long-term (secondorder?) trangressive-regressive cycle induced by
foreland-basin tec tonism. The succession is punctuated by unconformities and is subdivisi bl.e into
third-order sequences, which they suggested may be
related to eustatic ev e n t s and c � m be correlated with
the Haq et a] . (1987, 19 88) global cycle chart. However, recent debate (Miall 19 92b) indicates th at
this type of correlation is speculati ve and should be
viewed wi th caution.
The South Pyrenean foreland basin of northeast
Spain contains a mixed carbonate-siliciclastic succession of Paleocene-Eocene age 3 km thic k that has
been subdivided into nearly 20 third- order sequences. Contrasting analyses of different, but overlapping portions of this succession were provided by
Puigdefabregas et al. ( 19 86) and Luterbacher et al.
( 19 91). In the first of these papers, the authors attributed the development of the sequences to tectonism,
the gradual southward overthrusting of th e fold-
sediment entering the basin along transverse drainage systems and th erefore tends to be characterized
by larger channels. Such basins are commonly underfilled, in the terminology of/ordan (1995). These
differences are illustrated in Fig. 11.68. Examination
of these differences in individual cases may throw
important light on basin development. For example,
Burbank (1992) demonstrated that during the
Pliocene the Him alayan foreland basin of India underwent a transition from an underfi lled condition,
with an axial ancestral Ganges ri ver system flowing
in a relatively proximal position, to an overfilled
condition, dominated by transverse drainage of giant fan systems, such as the Kosi, and with th e axial
drainage having migrated laterally to a very distal
position withi n the basin. He related this change to
post-tectonic uplift of the Himalayan ranges and the.
proxim al basi n and to the irtcreased sedim ent supply
that resulted from this unroofing, the initiation of
the Indian monsoon, and from the late Cenozoic
Alpine glaci ation. His data for India therefore support the <'antitectonic" model for foreland basin
development (Sect. 11.3.6), in constrast to that part
of the basin located in Pakistan, wh ich Burban k et al.
(1988, 19 89) argued <;l p veloped according to the traditional ''syntectonic'
' model of sedimentation and
tectonics.
Ei sbacher et al. (1974) dem onstrated that transverse drainage derives mainly from structural
salients along fold-thrust belts, suc h as the central,
most uplifted par t of thrust plates, where the belt
tends to have a convex curvature faci ng the basin,
whereas many major longitudinal streams enter the
basin at reentrants, such as at the terminatiort of
thrust plates or at terrane sutures. They cited
the modern Him alayan foredeep as an example. Major alluvial fans, such as that of the Kosi River, represent transverse drainage from structural salients,
whereas the Brahmaputra River, one of the major
axi al
. drainage chaniiels · irt the basi � , enters at the
major syntaxis that marks the end of the Himalayan
ranges, iri Assam. Many transverse drainages are
thought to be antecedent riV ers; that is, they predate
the development of the mountain ranges through
whic h they cut. Examples in the Him alayas are cited
by Holmes (1965) and Seeber and Gornitz (1983),
and in the Zagros Ranges by Baltzer and Purser
(1 990).
Stratigraphic successions in foreland basins
are strongly cyclic. Regional tectonism has long
been known to be a prim ary control, and in recent
years there has been much debate regarding the
importance of eustasy as a major stratigraphic
Tectonic Control ofFlt!Vi!3.1 Sedimentation
control (e.g., Posamentier et al. 19 88; Miall 1991c;
Posamentier and Weim er 19 93). The relationship
between th rust-sheet loadi ng and the development
of a sedim entary moat is well established (e.g., Bally
et al. 1966) and has been modeled quantitatively by
several workers (e.g., Beaumont 1981; jordan 19 81;
jordan and Flemi ngs 199 0) . Rec ently, attempts have
been made to examine the correlation between
specific stratigraphic sequences, such as major
molasse pulses, and major regional tec tonic events
such as terrane collisions (Cant and Stockmal 19 89 ;
Stockmal et al. 1992) and thrust movement episodes
(Jordan et al. 19 88; Burbank and Raynolds 1988).
The nature of the theoretical relationship between
tectonism, subsidence, and sedimentation is exam�
ined in detai l in Sect. 11.3 .6. Tectonic cyclicity is on
several times scales. Of most concern here are the
so-called thi rd-, fourth-, and fifth-order sequences,
whic h have indicated durations of 1- 10, 0.2- 0.5, and
0.01- 0.2 million years, respectively. Longer-term sequences (> 10 million years) are related to global
plate-tectonic controls and are beyond · the concern
of thi s chapter (see Sect. 13.4 and review in Miall
1990). The relative importanc e of tectonism and
eustasy in generating these sequences is by no means
clear, either in general global terms or in the case of
the specific sequences in foreland basins. The followin ,s paragraphs provide brief discussions of the
nonmarine cyclicity in several foreland basins
around the world.
The Oligocene-Miocene molasse in the Digne
area of southeast France is discussed briefly in Sect.
11.4.5.1. Crumeyrolle et al. (1991) suggested that the
overall molasse succession is a long-term (secondorder?) trangressive-regressive cycle induced by
foreland-basin tec tonism. The succession is punctuated by unconformities and is subdivisi bl.e into
third-order sequences, which they suggested may be
related to eustatic ev e n t s and c � m be correlated with
the Haq et a] . (1987, 19 88) global cycle chart. However, recent debate (Miall 19 92b) indicates th at
this type of correlation is speculati ve and should be
viewed wi th caution.
The South Pyrenean foreland basin of northeast
Spain contains a mixed carbonate-siliciclastic succession of Paleocene-Eocene age 3 km thic k that has
been subdivided into nearly 20 third- order sequences. Contrasting analyses of different, but overlapping portions of this succession were provided by
Puigdefabregas et al. ( 19 86) and Luterbacher et al.
( 19 91). In the first of these papers, the authors attributed the development of the sequences to tectonism,
the gradual southward overthrusting of th e fold-